Characteristics of living things
-All are composed of cells
-All obtain energy and use it to develop
-Can sense changes in the environment and adjust in response to change
-Exhibit modifications that represent adaptations to their environment
Levels of Biological Organization
atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
How are organisms classified?
on the basis of their evolutionary/genetic relatedness
What is the scientific method? What is it’s importance in biological sciences?
Process used to validate observations while minimizing observer bias
It’s goal is for research to be conduced in a fair, unbiased and repeatable manner. The best way to discover how and why the world works
What is matter?
Anything that has mass and takes up space
What is an atom?
smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element. They combine to form molecules which then form into a solid, gas or liquid
What is the structure of an atom?
Nucleus in the center that contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no charge). The outermost region is called an electron shell that contain the electrons (negatively charged)
What is an ionic bond?
A chemical bond that’s formed when an atom transfers and electron to another Atom
What is a covalent bond?
Results when 2 atoms share electrons in order to have a completed outer shell
What is a double covalent bond?
Occurs when 2 atoms share 2 pairs of electroms
In order to be an organic molecule it must contain what?
Carbon and hydrogen
What are the main groups of organic molecules that build cells and their parts?
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acid
What are the properties of water?
Its attraction to polar molecules.
High-specific heat.
High heat of vaporization.
The lower density of ice.
High polarity.
Carbohydrates
Broken down to glucose to provide energy.
What are the different kinds of carbs?
Glucose= monosaccharide that serves as blood sugar
Sucrose= disaccharide which is table sugar
Polysaccharides= include starch, which stores energy in plants
Glycogen= stores energy in animals
Cellulose= makes up the structure of plant cell walls
Protein
macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and repair
Lipid
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Serve as a long term energy source
Nucleic acid
macromolecule containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
Form DNA which acts to store genetic information
What is the cell theory?
All living organisms are made up of cells
The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all living organisms
All cells arise from pre-existing cells
Ribosome
Makes proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another.
Smooth ER
Makes lipids
Rough ER
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.
Golgi Apparatus
Sorts and packs protein into vesicles and transports them
Lysosome
Digests food, bacteria and worn out organelles
Vacuole
Stores food, enzymes and other material
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell- produces energy for growth, development and movement
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
Cell wall
A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell
Explain the process of diffusion:
Molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until the concentration of molecules is the same at both sites
Explain the process of osmosis:
Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration
Describe a basic enzymatic reaction:
S+E= P+E
E represents the enzyme catalyzing the reaction
S is the substance being changed
P is the product of the reaction
What is an enzyme?
Catalysts that increase the speed of a chemical reaction without undergoing any permanent chemical change
What is the process of photosynthesis?
-The process in which the Sun’s energy is converted into chemical energy (occurs in chloroplasts).
-Carbon dioxide and water are added
-Sugar and oxygen are produced
What is cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen.
What is the cellular respiration equation?
6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
What is glycolysis?
“splitting sugars.” yields two molecules of ATP.
What is Krebs cycle?
This term refers to a series of chemical reactions that involve the complete oxidation of acetyl CoA and produce 2 mol of ATP (energy) along with hydrogen and carbon, which combine with oxygen to form (H2O) and (CO2).
What is the electron transport chain?
Is a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons,
down a series of reactions that release energy; used to make ATP.
What is cellular reproduction?
Process by which cells divide to form new cells
Growth phase- cell duplicates its contents and DNA
Cell Division- the cytoplasm and DNA of a parent cell are distribute to 2 daughter cells
How many chromosomes do humans have?
46 (23 pairs)
What is nondisjunction and when does it occur?
Nondisjunction occurs when chromosomes do not separate properly during cell division. This can form a gamete with an extra chromosome or one missing part or all of a chromosome (aka monosomy or trisomy). OCCURS DURING ANAPHASE 1 & 2
What is the law of dominance?
Mendel’s 2nd law of inheritance – one gene usually expresses itself over the other (one gene is dominant over the other)
What is the law of segregation?
during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent
What is the law of independent assortment?
Genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other
What is DNA biotechnology and what are some issues?
Use of natural biological systems to create a product or achieve some other end desired by humans
Issues:
-People feel it goes against the laws of nature
-People worry about the safety of it
How can lack of genetic control lead to cancer?
When someone has inherited an abnormal copy of a gene, their cells already start out with one mutation. This makes it easier for enough mutations to build up for a cell to become cancer
G1 (Growth 1)
Cell volume doubles and organelles replicate
S phase (synthesis)
DNA is replicated
G2 phase
cell produces proteins necessary for mitosis and then prepares to divide
What are the stages of mitosis?
prophase= chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear enveloped disappears
metaphase= the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator midway between the spindle poles
anaphase= sister chromatids separate and become daughter chromosomes- each pole receives a set of daughter chromosomes
telophase= spindle disappears as new nuclear envelopes form around the daughter chromosomes- each nucleus contains the same number and kinds of chromosomes the original parent nucleus
Describe the purpose of the cell cycle control system
Series of checkpoints to make sure that everything is proceeding properly. Checkpoints delay development from one phase off the cycle to the next until everything that should happen in a particular phase has happened
Explain the phases of the cell cycle control system:
G1= cell can enter GO or under apoptosis if DNA is damaged beyond repair. If the cell cycle passes his checkpoint, the cell is committed to complete the cycle
G2= the cell checks to make sure DNA has been replicated properly
M Checkpoint= cell makes sure the chromosomes are properly aligned and ready to be partitioned to the daughter cells
What is apoptosis?
Programmed chemical process that causes a cell to self-destruct
Serves the purpose of keeping the number of cells in the body roughly constant and removing cells with damaged DNA
Explain the basics of mitosis
Type of cell division in which one cell(the mother) divides to produce 2 new cells(the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself
Somatic cells aids in the growth and development of an organism as well as in the replacement of old and injured cells
- results in 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical
Explain the basics of meiosis
Type of cell division in which the number of chromosome is reduced in half from the diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). The result is 4 gametes: eggs in females and sperm in males
Reproductive cells produces gametes for sexual reproduction
- The gametes contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
What are the stages of meiosis I?
Interphase: DNA in the cell is copied resulting in 2 identical full sets of chromosomes
Prophase 1: the copied chromosomes condense into x shaped structure- each chromosome is composed of 2 sister chromatids
Metaphase 1: chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the center of the cell
Anaphase 1: pair of chromosomes are pulled apart, pull one chromosome to each pole
Telophase 1: chromosomes complete their move to opposite poles of the cell- 2 nuclei form
What are the stages of meiosis II?
Prophase II: 2 daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes
- membrane around the nucleus in each daughter cell dissolves away releasing chromosomes
Metaphase II: 2 daughter cells in chromosomes line up end-to-end along the equator of the cell
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are then pulled to opposite poles due to the action of the meiotic spindle- separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes
Telophase II: Chromosomes complete their move to the opposite poles of the cell - Membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create 2 new cell nuclei
What is the structure and function of DNA?
Long chain of repeating units called nucleotide that consist of 2 strands that spiral around each other in a structure called double helix
Each contains a 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and one of found nitrogen bases adenine(A), guanine(G), Cytosine(C), thymine(T)
Function is to store all the genetic information that an organism needs to develop, function and reproduce
What is a purine?
Adenine and Guanine
What is a pyrimidine?
thymine and cytosine
What is the structure and function of RNA?
A single-stranded molecule that consists of nucleotides arranged in a long chain
Contains a 4-carbon sugar called ribose, phosphate groups and 4 nitrogen-containing bases- Adenine(A), Guanine(G), Cytosine(C), uracil(U)
Functions to convert the information stored in DNA into proteins
What is messenger RNA (mRNA)?
Carries information coding for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosomes of the cell
What is transfer RNA (tRNA)?
Caries the required amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome for protein synthesis. Helps to arrange the amino acids into the proper sequence for the synthesis of proteins
What is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?
RNA that becomes part of ribosomes (the main component of ribosomes) and catalyzes the bonding of amino acids
What is a prokaryotic cell and what is the structure?
No true nucleas as the DNA is coiled up in the region of the cytoplasm called the nucleotide
Capsule: outer covering that protects the cell
Cell Wall: Outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape
Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance composed of mainly of water
Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell’s cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell
Flagella: Long whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular locomotion
Ribosomes: Responsible for protein production
Plasmids: gene carrying
Nucleoid Region: area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecules
What is a eukaryotic cell and what is the structure?
An organism whose cells contain a nucleus surround by a membrane whose DNA is bound together by proteins into chromosomes
Nucleus: Directs cell activities and contains genetic material
Mitochondria: Make energy out of food
Ribosomes: make protein
Golgi apparatus: make, process and packages proteins
Lysosomes: Contains digestive enzymes to help break food down
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Transports all sorts of items around the cell
Vacuole: Used for storage usually contain water or food
Plants have:
Chloroplast: Use sunlight to create food by photosynthesis
Cell Wall: For support
What are the characteristics of cancer?
-Lack differentiation: lose their specialization and do not contribute to the functioning of a body part
- Have abnormal nuclei: enlarged and may contain abnormal;, duplicated or deleted chromosomes
- Do not undergo apoptosis: do not respond to normal signals to initiate apoptosis and they continue to divide
- Form tumors: have lost all restraint and they pile on top of one another and grow in multiple layers forming a tumor
What is a malignant tumor?
Invasive and may spread to other places to form new tumors elsewhere
What is a benign tumor?
Contained within a capsule and cannot invade adjacent tissue
How does cancer develop?
Develops when the bodies normal control mechanism stops working. Old cells do not die and instead grow out of control forming new abnormal cells called tumors
What is the function of the epithelial tissue?
covers body surfaces and lines body cavities
What is the function of connective tissue?
Binds and supports body parts
What is the function of muscular tissue?
Moves the body and its parts
What is the function of nervous tissue?
receives stimuli and conducts nerve impulses
Kingdom Archaebacteraia
Domain: Archaea
Cell Type: prokaryotic, unicellular
Ex: methanogens, halophiles
Kingdom Eubacteria
Domain: Bacteria
Cell Type: Prokaryotic, unicellular
Ex: Bacteria
Kingdom Protista
Domain: Eukarya
Cell Type: Eukaryotic, Multicellular
Ex: Green algae, slime molds
Kingdom Fungi
Domain: Eukarya
Cell Type: Eukaryotic, multicellular
Ex: Mushrooms, yeast, mold
Kingdom Plantae
Domain: Eukarya
Cell Type: Eukaryotic, multicellular
Ex: Moss
Kingdom Animalia
Domain: Eukarya
Cell Type: Eukaryotic, Multicellular
Ex: Mammals, sponges, insects
Explain the effects human society has had on the worlds ecosystem:
Emerging Diseases: changes in human behavior and use of technology can result in new disease
Extinction: Estimated we are loosing hundreds of species every year due to human activity
Climate change: Changes in the normal cycles of the earths climate that may be attributed to human activity
Greenhouse effect: Gases allow the suns ray to pass through, but they absorb and radiate heat back to Earth
Explain Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Process by which organisms develop adaptations to their environment and is the mechanism that results in evolution over many generations
Explain Darwin’s theory of evolution
Genetic change in a line of descent over time is responsible for the tremendous diversity of life forms on Earth
Explain Microevolution
Refers to the evolutionary changes within a population
What are causes of microevolution?
Mutations: cause genetic variations within a breeding population
Gene flow: occurs when alleles are exchanged between migrating populations of the same species
Random Mating: Occurs when males and females mate by chance according to the laws of probability and not by the selection of certain genotype or phenotype
Genetic Drift: the tendency of allele ratios to change simply by chance
Bottleneck effect: may occur when some kind of natural catastrophe greatly reduces the size of a species population
Founder effect: may occur when populations are separated to interbreed more or less exclusive over time
Describe the factors that are necessary for natural selection to occur:
- Population members exhibit differences that are heritable
- Population members produce more offspring than can be supported by the environmental resources
- Competition exists between population members for limited resources and results in increased survival and reproduction of better adapted individuals
- Through many generations, a greater portion of the popopulation exhibits adaptions to the environment and thus the population as a whole evolves
What is directional selection?
Occurs when an extreme phenotype is favoured
- Curve shifts in one direction
What is stabilizing selection?
takes place when extreme phenotype are selected against, thus resulting in average or intermediate prototypes
- The peak of the curve increases
What is disruptive selection?
Occurs when 2 or more extreme phenotypes are favoured over intermediate types
- The curve has 2 peaks
What is sexual selection?
Adaptive changes in either sex that lead to an increase in the ability to attract and secure a mate
What is speciation?
the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
What is allopatric speciation?
a physical barrier divides one population into two or more populations
What is peripatetic speciation?
When small groups of individuals break off from the larger group and form a new species
What is parapatric speciation?
A species is spread out over a large geographic area. Individuals only mate with those in their own region. The species are separated by differences in the same environment
What is sympatric speciation?
Occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a species from mating with another and all members are in close proximity to one another
What is adaptive radiation?
Occurs when neighboring populations become separate species even though their territories overlap in a certain area
What is gradualistic equilibirum?
Is selection and variation that happens more gradually over a long time population changes
-Change is slow, constant and consistent
What is punctuated equilibrium?
here is a period of very little change, and then one or a few huge changes occur. The species changes very rapidly over a few generations, then settles down again to a period of little change
- New species appear suddenly and then remain largely unchanged until they go extinct
Discuss the principles of taxonomy and the classification of species
-The identification, naming and classification or organisms
- Species are assigned to a family, order, class, phylum, kingdom and domain based on their structural similarities to species
Discuss Viruses
Tiny non cellular organic systems that have some properties of living things, but are not classified as living organisms
- Tend to enter plants through damaged tissues and in animals invade Eukaryota cells
Ex: measles, chicken pox, common cold
Discuss Prokaytoes
Sorted into 2 domains: bacteria and archaea
Bacteria:
photoautotrophs: capable of oxygen-based photosynthesis
Chemoheterotrophs: Obtain their nutrition from other organisms
Arechae: Consists of ancient prokaryotes taht are adapted to extreme habitats
- Thrive in oxygen-free environments such as sewage swamps and animal guts
How does bacteria reproduce?
may reproduce by 3 means of genetic recombination::
Conjugation: occurs in closely related species, DNA is passed from a donor cell to a recipient cell through tiny tubes
Transformation: Fragments of DNA are picked up from surrounding living or dead bacteria
transduction: Baceriophaes carry portions of bacterial DNA from one cell to another
Discuss protists
Include all the eukaryuotic unicellular organisms that may resemble either animals or plants
3 groups:
Algae: plantlike protists which are generally photosynthetic
Protozoans: Categorized by types of locomtion they employ
slime and water molds: feed on dead plant matter and assist with the cycling of nutrients
Define the types of locomotion
Ciliates: hairlike cilia for swimming about to capture food
Amoeboids: use false feet for moving around and capturing prey
Radiolarians: marine amoeboids that form calcium carbonate shells
Zooflagellates: move about by means of long slender extensions called flagella
Sporzoans: Aren’t mobile or capable of self propulsion
What are nonvacular plants?
Plants that are well adapted for growth in moist habitats
- Have no vascular tissues, instead they have threadlike structures for absorbing water and solutes
What are seedless vascular plants?
Plants that contain vacular tissue but do not produce flowers or seeds
What are seed-bearing vacular plants?
They produce seeds that encase their embryonic sporophyte inside a protective coat
What is pollination?
male gametophyte pollen grain lands on a female gametophjyte and they form a pollen tube that carries a sperm cell to fertilize an egg within an ovule
What are angiosperms?
Flowering plants in which the seed in enclosed within a fruit wall
What is fungi?
Non-green, heterotrophic organisms that grow in dark, moist habitats
- Do not have chloroplasts, can’t photosynthesis, are multi cellular eukaryotes and more closely related to animals rather than plants
Ex: Mushrooms, molds, yeast
Parts:
Mycelium: vegetable part that consists of a network of fine white filaments (hyphae)
Hyphae: Create an expanded surface area, allowing them greater efficient in extracting water and nutrients form soils
What are invertebrates?
Lack an internal skeleton
- evolved first and outnumber vertebrates
What are protostomes?
Characterized by spiral cell division when the embryo first forms and a Elastoplast becomes the mouth
- Mouth is the first opening (proto, before)
- Ex: flatworms, roundworms, mollusks, arthropods
What are deuterostomes?
Characterized by radial cell division when he embryo first forms and a blastoplore becomes the anus
- Second opening (deutero, second)
- Ex: echinoderms, chordates
Describe the evolution of chrodates:
The earliest chordates were all marine animals. As chordates continued to evolve, they spread to freshwater habitats and to land. The amphibians represent an intermediate phase in the water to the land transition of chordates. The evolution of birds further increases the disturbed of chordates by expanding their populations into sky habitats.
Explain the imporatint classifications of primates:
Prosimians- lemurs and tarsiers
Anthropoids- monkeys, apes and humans
Hominids- apes, chimpanzees and humans
Hominins- humans
Explain the innovations that lead to the evolution of hominins
Bipedal: had a small brain but walked upright on 2 legs
Tool Use Is certain to have made tools and may have been the first to exhibit culture
Increased brain size: Double the brain size and may have been the first to control fire and use more complex tools
What is the epidermis?
Outside of a plant that is made up of a single layer of cells
- Cells exposed to air are covered with a waxy cuticle which restricts water loss
What is ground tissue?
Make up the bulk of the plant body- includes 3 types of simple tissue:
Parenchyma cells: have thin walls and are active in photosynthesis and storage
Collenchyma cells: provide support for primary tissues
Sclerenchyma cells: Fibrous cells that give stalks their gravity-resisting strength
What is vascular tissue?
Composed of 2 types of tissues
Xylem: conducts water and dissolved minerals through the plant body
Phloem: Conducts sugars and other solutes throughout the plant
Explain how water is transported through plants
Cohesion-tension model: Water and minerals in solute are taken up in root hairs and then transported upward in xylem
Transpiration: as dry air crosses a lear surface when stomata are open, water in the plant evaporates in the air
Explain the different plant responses
Phototropism: causes plants to turn toward light
Gravitropsim: causes plant stems to curve away from gravity
Explain the different plant hormones:
Chemical signals that cause responses within plant cells and tissues
Auxin’s: soften cell walls to allow growth
Gibberellins: promote stem elongation and break seed dormancy
Cytokinins: promote cell division, prevent age of leaves
Abscisic Acid: initiates and maintains seed dormancy and closing of stomata
Ethylene: causes detachment of leaves, fruits, flowers and ripen fruits
Explain the male reproductive parts of a plant
Stamens: made up of anthers on a long stalk called a filament
Anthers contain pollen sacs
Haploid spores form in the anthers and give rise to the male gametophyes, which are pollen grains
Explain the female reproductive parts of a plant
Carples
Composed of a stigma, a style and an ovary where an egg develops
Discuss how plants reproduce
Most plants reproduce sexually by alternating the production of sporophytes, the spore-producing bodies, with the production of gametophytes-gamete producing bodies
- as flowers form they differentiate into nonfertible parts, the sepals and petals and fertile parts, the stamens and carpels
What do roots do?
Specialized structures for the absorption of minerals and water from the soil
What do stems do?
Support and anchor the aboveground portion of the plant, and carry water and food from place to place within the plant
What do leaves do?
Manafacture food for plant growth and repair
What do stamens do?
Contains the pollen which insects and birds are attracted to
What is the process of homeostasis?
Refers to stability, balance and equilibrium
- Is the bodies attempt to maintain a constant and balanced internal environment
- Maintaining a constant internal environment with everything that the cells need to survive is necessary for the well-being of individual cells and the well-being of the entire body
Explain the importance of neurons
Fundamental unit of the nervous system. Purpose is to receive incoming information, send a signal to other neurons, muscles or glands. They are designed to rapidly send signals across long distances. They do this using electrical signals called nerve impulse. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of a chemical or neurotransmitter. The neurotransmitter travels across the short gab between cells and acts to signal the adjacent cell.
Explain the central nervous sytem
composed of the brain and the spinal chord
- Brain is the master control system of the body. it receives, integrates, stores and retrieves sensory information
- The spinal cord is the expressway for signals between the brain the the pns system. It’s responsible for reflexes, and involuntary protective reactions
Explain the peripheral nervous system
Consists of cable-like bundles called nerves that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
somatic system: carries signals about moving the head, trunk and limbs
-This system controls reflexes
Autonomic system: carries signals to and from smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
Parasympathetic Divison: associated with happy feelings
Sympathetic division: associated with stress and threats
What do skeletal muscles do?
Attached to bones- functions in moving the body and its part
- under voluntary control by the nervous system
What do cardiac muscles do?
Allows for contraction and relaxation of heart tissue
- provides flow of blood throughout the body
What do smooth muscles do?
Present in the walls of the stomach, bladder, lungs, and other organs
- Responsible for gut motility, bladder emptying and other organ functions
What does the circulatory system do?
Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes carbon dioxide and waste materials
What is a closed circulatory system?
Blood in the system flows within a complex network of vessels that are all connected to each other. The blood is pumped by the heart through the body in a continuous circuit of different types of vessels
What is an open circulatory system?
Instead of a heart, blood vessels join directly with open sinuses. Hemolymph is formed from the blood vessels into large sinuses, where it bathes the internal organs. Other vessels receive blood forced from these sinuses and conduct it back to the pumping vessels
What are characteristics of blood?
- transports oxygen and nutrients to all the cells in the body
- carries away metabolic wastes and secretes them
- transports cells that fight infections and remove debris from tissues
- stabilizes body temperature by moving excess heat from the muscles to the skin for dissipation
- composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets called formed elements and plasma
What are red blood cells?
Transports oxygen from aerobic respiration and carry away some of the carbon dioxide wastes
What are white blood cells?
Help fight infections
What are lymphocytes?
Type of WBC that attack foreign matter and fx as the source of viral defense
What is nutrition?
Process by which food is obtained, prepared, absorbed and converted into body substances such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acid
What are macronutrients?
Carbs, proteins, lipids(fats)
- primary building blocks of your diet
-Provide the body with the energy needed to maintain body functions and carry out the activities of daily life
-required in large amounts on a daily basis
What are micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals
- Help to process macro nutrients and are essential for growth and good health
- Required in small amounts
What does the immune system do?
Helps the body repel foreign substances, cancers and pathogens
Describe the various components that play a role in the body’s defenses against disease
immunity: the ability of the body to protect and defend itself against foreign substances
Red bone marrow: produces all kinds of blood cells, including cells important to the immune system
Lymph nodes: filter impurities such as pathogens and antigens
Spleen: spongy tissue of this organ is adapted to filtering out impurities from the blood
Tonsil: Trap germs which you may breathe in
-antibodies in tonsils help to kill germs and help to prevent thraot and lung infections
Appendix: acts as a storehouse for good bacteria
What are strategies for nonspecific defense again diseases:
Skin and mucous membranes: serve as a body surface barriers to entry
-Pathogens can’t get past the linings of these surfaces
Inflammatory response: kicks in when a pathogen invades body tissues
-necrophilia: ingest, kill and digest bacterial cells
mast cells: release neutralizing chemicals
macrophages: particle in the inflammatory response
complement system: made up of blood plasma proteins that complement certain kinds of immune response actions
Natural killer cells: large granular lymphocytes that kill cancer cells and cells infected by viruses
Describe the function of the respiratory system
respiration is the process by which animals move oxygen into the blood and rid the body of the accumulated carbon dioxide wastes
upper respiratory tract:
nasal cavities: canals separated by a septum of bone and cartilage
Sinuses: act as resonating chambers for speaking and singing
Pharynx: passageway that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx
larynx: vocal cords-voice box
lower respiratory tact:
trachea: windpipe, tube connecting larynx to the bronchi
bronchi: which enter the left and right lungs
Lungs: pair of respiratory organs situated on each side of the heart
Diaphragm: Sits at base of the chest and separates the abdomen from the chest
-contracts and flattens when you inhale
-when you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and air is pushed out the lungs
Alveoli: Tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid gaseous exchange
Explain how breathing works
Inhalation= air enters the lungs
Exhalation= air leaves the lungs
- as oxygen is removed from inhaled air, the air in the lungs quickly becomes saturated with carbon dioxide
0 during exhalation, air moves out the lungs, ribs fall, sternum sinks and the diaphragm arches upward
-this reduces the volume capacity of the thorax and air is expelled from the lungs as a result
Describe the function of the urinary system
- excretion of nitrogenous wastes
- maintenance of the water-salt balance of the blood
- maintenance of the acid-base balance of the blood
Kidneys: help filter blood, help the body pass waste as urine
Urine: made by the kidneys is conducted from the body by the other organs in the urinary system
Urinary bladder: where urine is stored until it is voided from the body
Urethra: tube that takes urine from the kidney to the muscular sac called the urinary bladder
Explain urine formation
Filtration: moves small molecules from a blood capillary to the inside of the nephron capsule
Re-absorption: substances from the proximal tubule move into the bloodstream
Secretion: transport of substances into the nephron
Describe the fucntion of the digestive system:
-Ingesting food
-Break down of food into smaller molecules that can be transported
- Absorbing nutrient molecules
- Eliminating indigestible materials
Mouth: entrance to the system where food is moistened and chewed
Pharynx: short and wide space that serves as a passageway for food and air
Esophagus: extends from the pahrnyx to the stomach
Stomach: secretes acid and enzymes that digest food - serves as temporary storage for food
Small intestine: receives the chyme from the stomach
Duodenum: receives bile from the liver and digestive enzymes from the pancreas
Large intestine: absorbs water, salts and vitamins
Pancreas: produces insulin
Explain the human senses
Taste buds: stimulated by food molecules
- we experience different tastes such as sweet, sour, bitter and salty
Smells: chemo receptors detect smell odors from tiny proportions of odor-producing molecules in the air
Sense of hearing: involves structures that collect and amplify sound waves from the environment
Vision: What we see
Parts of the male reproductive system:
Testes: produce sperm and sex hormones that control both reproduction functions and secondary sexual traits
- After sperm is produced, they travel from each testis through a duct called the epdidymis where they completely mature
Vas deferens: transports mature sperm to the urethra
Urethra: tube that carries urine or sperm to the outside of the body
Parts of the female reproductive system
Ovaries: produce eggs and secrete sex hormones
Oviducts: from channels into the uterus
Uterus: organ that embryos develop and grow in
Endometrium: inner ling of the uterine wall and is composed of specialized tissue
Characteristics of a more-developed country
- High standard of living
- High GDP per captia
- Advanced public transportation
- Low poverty
- Low number of homelessness
- High quality of education
- Advanced Military and security
Characteristics of a less-developed country
- Low GDP per capita
- High levels of poverty
- Dependence on agriculture and the export of primary products
- Highers rates of population growth
- Low levels of productivity
- High levels of unemployment
Explain opportunistic populations
- Small individuals
- Short life span
- Fast to mature
- Many offspring
- Little to no care of offspring
- Exponential growth
Explain equilibrium populations
- Large individuals
- Long life span
- Slow to mature
- Few offspring
- Much care of offspring
- Logistic growth
Explain species composition
number of species that exist within a particular community
Explain species diversity
Takes into account both species richness and the distribution of individuals from the different species present
Explain ecological succession
occurs when a community changes in composition and diversity, from one type to another type in a more or less orderly manner
Explain primary succession
occurs on surface where no soil exists
Explain secondary succession
Occurs after a disturbance that does not completely destroy a community-leaving some nutrient soil and perhaps some vegetation. (cutting your grass)
Explain the competitive exclusion principle.
No 2 species can occupy the same niche in the same habitat at the same time. Competition will follow until one species finds a new niche, moves out of the ecosystem, or dies.
Explain resource partioning
Division of limited resources by species to help avoid competition in an ecological niche
Explain mutualism
Beneficial relationship between 2 species
Explain keystone species
acts to hold the web of interactions together, thus acting to stabilize the community
Explain how energy flows through ecosystems
producers get energy from the sun, then the consumers eat the producer which gives them energy, then once the consumer dies the decomposer decomposes it and that gives energy back to the producer
Explain the biochemical cycle
movement of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. Can be taken up by living things and used for growth and reproduction
Explain the carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Plants take in carbon dioxide and go through photosynthesis and produces carbs. The carbs are then passed along food webs to animals and other consumers.
Explain the phosphorus cycle
Phosphate is found in rocks, phosphate degrades into the river, creating a phosphate solution which is absorbed into the soil and into the roots of plants which are then eaten by consumers of the area
Explain the nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen gas gets into the soil by rain. Then a nitrogen-fixing bacteria turns it into a usable compound for plants by adding oxygen and hydrogen. It can also be “fixed” by lightning. Animals get nitrogen by consuming plant protein. The compounds are return to the soil as waste or dead organisms. They can either go back to nitrofication bacteria or denitrication bacteria.
What are renewable resources?
Available in unlimited supply
- Energy sources like solar radiation and wine, animals for food
- Must be careful not to over consume them
What are nonrenewable resources?
Limited amounts of supply
- Fossil fuels, copper, zinc, silver, sand, gravel, phosphate
- may result in pollution: negative consequence that often accompanies resource extraction and consumption
Explain why humans depend on land
- people require a physical place t live
- Needed for a variety of uses from homes, agriculture, electric power plants, manufacturing plants, highways, hospitals, schools
- Human actives like farming, mining and habituation has contributed to pollution, deforestation and loss of biodiversity
Explain why humans depend on water
- Access to clean drinking water is considered a human right, but most freshwater is used by agriculture and industry’s
- Used for cooking, bathing, flushing toilets, watering laws, drinking
- Irrigation of farmlands consume large amounts of water and can lead to build of salts in soil that can be toxic to plants
Explain why humans depend on food
- Comes from growing crops, raising animals and fishing the seas
- World fish population has declined due to increased number and efficiency of fishing boats
- Modern farming increase the food supply but they harm the land, pollute water and consume fossil fuels
Explain why humans depend on energy
- 6% of world’s energy comes from nuclear power and 81% comes from fossil fuels
- Using fossil fuels causes pollutants and greenhouse gases to enter the air
Explain why humans depend on minerals
- nonrenewable raw materials in the earth crust that can be mined and used by humans
- sand, iron, gravel, phosphate, gold
- Act of mining causes destruction of land by erosion, loss of vegetation, and toxic runoff into bodies of water
Explain biodiversity
The variety of life on Earth
hotspots: biographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction
Explain direct values
- medical value (medicines derived from living organisms)
- agricultural value (crops derived from wild plants)
- biological pest controls and animal pollinators
- consumptive use values (food production)
Explain indirect values
- The functioning of biogeochemical cycles )water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus)
- Waste disposal (through the action of decomposers and the ability of natural communities to purify water and take up pollutants)
- Freshwater provision through the water biogeochemical cycle
- Prevention of soil erosion, which occurs naturally in intact ecosystems
- Climate regulations (plants take up carbon dioxide)
- Ecotoursion (human enjoyment of a beautiful ecosystem)
Provide examples of threats to biodiversity
Climate change: seasons, rising of sea levels, and glaciers melting
Deforestation and habitat loss, agriculture, mining, deforestation and water extraction are all causes of habitat loss
Pollution: from burning of fossil fuels and dumping plastic into our oceans- pollution disrupts the earth ecosystem
Overexploitation: refers to the act of over-harvesting species and natural resources at rates faster than they can actually sustain themselves in the wild
Discuss approaches toward a sustainable society
- Would use only renewable energy resources, reuse heat and waste materials and recycle almost everything
- Would provide the same goods and services presently provided and would preserve biodiversity
Describe abiotic factors that influence population growth
include natural disasters such as flash floods and volcanic eruptions
- may radically reduce population but population destiny doesn’t affect the proportion of a population killed
Describe biotic factors that influence population growth
competition: for food supply, breeding resources or other resource grows more intense as population density increases
predation: when densities are high, the instances of predation are greater and the mortality rate is much higher
Predator-prey: tend to vary in cycles
Discuss and explain concepts about earth’s human population
- The industrial revolution brought an increase in the production of food and medicines, along with a decrease in the death rate. The growth curve for the human population began to increase
- Growth rate of the human population is determined by the difference between the number of people born and the number of people who die each year
- Some places around the world people don’t have adequate access to fresh water, food, shelter, water, and energy
Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes)
First animals to display bilateral symmetry and actual organ systems
hermaphrodites: have both male and female reproductive parts
- reproduce sexually by exchanging sperm with another individual
Mollusks (Phylum Mollusca)
bilateral symmetry with a fleshy, soft body enclosed within a shell composed of calcium carbonate
Visceral mass: holds the internal organs
Muscular foot: used for movement
Mantel: drapes over the visceral mass
Major classes:
Gastropods: animals move by muscle contractions that pass along the food
ex: conchs and snails
Cephalopods: the foot has evolved into tentacles about the head
-Posses well developed nervous systems and complex sensory organs
ex: squid, octopus
Annelids (phylum Annelida)
segmented worms are organisms with highly pronounced segmentation as well as bilateral symmetry
septa: divide the well developed, fluid-filled coelom, which functions to facilitate movement
-brain connected to a ventral nerve cord
ex: earthworms leeches
Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda)
nonsegment meaning they have a smooth outside body wall
- generally coloress and occur almost everywhere
digestive tract is complete because it has both a mouth an anus
Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda)
Jointed appendages: hollow tubes moved by muscles, become adapted to means of locomotion, food gathering and reproduction
Exoskeleton: composed of chitin, strong, flexible, nitrogenous polysaccaride
Segmentation: repeating units of the body
Well-developed nervous system: have a brain and a ventral nerve cord
ex: crustaceans: marine animals= shrimp, lobster, crabs
ex: arachnids: land arthropods= spiders, scorpion, ticks
ex: insects: 6 legs and 1 or 2 pairs of wings= beetle, bees, butterfly
Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata)
display radial symmetry, with some bilateral features during larval stages
- adults do not have a head, brain or segmntation
- Feed off organic matter in the sea
ex: sea stars, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars
Chordates (phylum Chordata)
Divided into invertebrates and vertebrates. Include bilaterally symmetrical animals that have a backbone composed of cartilage or bone
supporting rod (notochord): long stiff tissue that supports the body
Dorsal tubular nerve cord: provides framework from which the nervous system develops
Pharyngeal pouches: serve functions related to feeding or respiration
Tail: Formed in embryos and extending past the anus
Phylum chordate is further divided into classes:
Class agnatha (jawless fish)” includes hagfish and lamprey
Class Chondrichthyes: include cartilaginous fish like sharks and rays
Class osteichthyes (bony fish) most diverse and abundant, include eels, salmon, carp, catfish, pufferfish
Class Amphibia: include frogs, toads and salamanders
Class Reptilia: include snakes, turtles, alligators and crocodiles
Class Aves: includes birds
Class Mammalia: includes mammals like humans
Which of the following is NOT a domain of the 3 domain system?
Prokarya
An atom of which of the following elements contains 6 protons and electrons?
Carbon
_ is the name for all the chemical processes in the cell.
Metabolism
What does a receptor protein do?
Allows a specific molecule to bind to it because of its shape
_ are modifications that make organisms suited to their way of life.
Adaptations
Example of a monosaccharide
Glucose
What is the MAIN energy molecule in the body?
ATP
Which of the following molecules is a byproduct of cellular respiration?
Water
Which of the following organelles is part of the endomembrane system?
Golgi Apparatus
Sunflowers belong to which Kingdom?
Plantae
An insect is able to walk across the surface of a pond without sinking because of the:
Surface tension of the water
Which of the following structures surrounds the cytoplasm in a bacterial cell?
Plasma membrane
Which of the following is TRUE of the scientific method?
Accepted explanation for how the world works
Binomial name given to an organism is composed of:
Genus, Species
Crossing-over involves the exchange of genetic information between:
Nonsister chromatids
Nucleic acids are composed of monomers called:
Nucleotides
Which of the following occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria?
Electron transport chain
What does electronegativity mean?
Affinity for electrons in a covalent bond
If you immerse a living cell in a hypertonic solution, water will:
Move out of the cell
Which of the following occurs during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
NADPH production
_ chromosomes are found in pairs, one from father and mother
Homologus
Bacteria reproduce by:
Binary Fission
Autosomes are _ chromosomes
Nonsex
What holds the base pairs of DNA together?
Hydrogen bonding
Which of the following is an x-linked recessive disorder?
Color-blindness
How does mitosis in plant cells differ from that in animal cells?
Animals lack a cell plate and plant cells lack centrioles
_ have the potential to develop and specialize into any cell type, which means they’re:
Totipotent, Embryotic stem cells
A woman who isn’t color blind but has an allele for color blindness reproduces with a man who has normal vision. What is the chance they’ll have a colorblind daughter?
0%
Which of the following shows the correct order in which genes are expressed?
DNA -> RNA -> Proteins
Stating that an organism is heterozygous is stating its:
Genotype
The phase of cell division in which chromosomes align on the spindle equator halfway between the spindle poles is:
Metaphase
If a piece of DNA breaks off from a chromosome and attaches itself to a nonhomologus chromosome at another location, what type of change has occurred?
Translocation
What is a characteristic of cancer cells?
They result in uncontrolled growth
One parent has curly hair, one parent has straight hair, their child has wavy hair. This is an example of:
Incomplete Dominance
_ are the proteins that DNA is wound around to form chromosomes.
Histones
2 organisms, each with the genotype TtGg, mate the chance of producing an offspring that has the dominant phenotype for height (T) and the recessive phenotype color (g) is:
3/16
Which of these is happening when translation takes place?
tRNA are bringing amino acids to the ribosomes
If a cell has 46 chromosomes, how many will it have after meiosis?
23
Both insects and roundworms exhibit _ whereas sponges, snails and leeches do not.
Molting during growth
In the evolutionary adaption sense, what is fitness?
The reproductive success of an individual
Fungi are considered to be more closely related to animals instead of plants because they:
Can’t make their own food
_ isolation occurs when 2 species occupy different habitats within the same geographical range:
Habitat isolation
The distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is based on differences in their:
Embryological development
In evolution, the study of vertebrae forelimbs is related to __ evidence.
Anatomical evidence
Which of the following structures develops into a pollen grain?
Microspore
Which one of the following choices presents a condition required for the Hardy-Weinberg principle to be in effect?
Random mating occurs
What happens when previous adaptations are no longer suitable for changes in the environment?
Extinction
Which of the following is an example of a group of prokaryotic organisms?
Archaea
Darwin argued that the beak size and shape of Galapagos Finch species was related to their:
Food source
Which of the following is NOT an example of a service provided by beneficial bacteria?
A. Food production
B. Nutrient Cycling
C. Bioaccumulation
D. Bioremediation
Bioaccumulation
The most diverse and prevalent organisms on earth are:
Bacteria
Angiosperms may use any of the following to disperse pollen except:
Water
Which of the following is not a form of genetic recombination in bacteria?
Binary Fission
The tail bones of humans is an example of _ structure.
Vestigial
According to the theory of evolution, birds feathers evolved from:
Reptile Scales
__ capture their prey with a ring of stinging tentacles.
Cnidarians
What organisms can live in hot springs and thermal vents?
Archaea
During the life cycle of a plant, gametophyte is to n as sporophyte is to:
2n
Which nutrient is not a source of energy for the body?
Vitamins
What type of reproduction shuffles the genes?
Sexual
How many cotyledons would be found in a flowering plant with 9 petals on each flower and long leaves with parallel leaf veins?
One
What is thigmotropism?
Growth in response to touch
In plants, what type of tissue is responsible for transporting water and nutrients?
Vascular
Which series best illustrates the pathway of blood flow in a closed circulatory system?
Heart, Arteries, Capillaries, Veins
What chamber of the heart receives blood from the pulmonary veins?
Left Atrium
During development, an embryo is embedded in the:
Endometrium
Which of the following would cause a plant to grow taller?
Gibberellins
During transpiration, water exits the leaf via:
The stomata
Which of the following is the largest?
Bronchi
Annual rings in woody stems are caused by an increase in rings of the:
Secondary Xylem
Too much calcium in a persons diet may result in
Kidney stones
In plants, the purpose of auxins is to:
Bring about apical dominance
What happens when the lungs recoil?
Expiration occurs
Which of the following animals has a single-loop closed circulatory system?
Fish
InVitro fertilization takes place in:
A laboratory
What is the internal lining of many organs called?
Epithelium
Which structure transports sugars from leaves to the roots?
Phloem
Which of the following is a renewable resource?
Wind
During exponential growth, the rate of growth:
Starts slowly then accelerates
_ is the science of observing and describing organisms in their environment paired with experimental science:
Ecology
The most common cause of desertification is:
Overgrazing
A complex of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem is called a/an:
Food web
Which of the following factors will have a greater impact on a population as the density of that population increases?
Predation
All of the following are renewable sources of energy except _ power.
Nuclear
Study the following food chain: Grass -> Rabbits -> Snakes -> Hawks. From this food chain, you can correctly assume that each population:
Supports the next trophic level
Which of the following was one result of the “Green Revolution”?
An increase in the yield of crops for less developed countries
Environmental impact of a population includes all of the following except:
Predation
Which one of the following phrases describes many countries within Asia and Africa?
LDC’s experiencing rapid population growth
Completion, predation, and parasitism are _ factors influencing population growth.
Density dependent
Which one of the following is an example of resource partitioning?
2 species of squirrels- one eats acorns from the branches and one that eats acorns that have fallen to the ground
Which one of the following pollutants is responsible for the increase in skin cancer?
Chlorofluorocarbons
What characteristic of a population increases with plentiful resources?
Population density
Why might introduction of an exotic species disrupt an ecosystem?
They can outcompete the native species
A species particular position in a community is its:
Niche
Which of the following is the correct definition of carrying capacity?
The number of individuals an environment can sustain