SCOFF questionnaire
Basic yet reliable set of five questions that help assess whether an eating disorder exists.
Do you make yourself Sick because you feel uncomfortably full?
Do you worry that you have lost Control over how much you eat?
Have you recently lost more than One stone (14 lbs) in a 3-month period?
Do you believe yourself to be Fat when others say you are too thin?
Would you say that Food dominates your life?
Scientific Method
The process of formulating explanations about the natural world and testing those explanations with experiments and data.
- Identify a Problem
- Formulate a hypothesis
- Design a study to test the hypothesis
- Collect data
- Discard or change the hypothesis OR continue testing
Evidence-Based Practice
A three-pronged approach to working with clients, which consists of making decisions based on the weight of the scientific evidence, field observations, and individual client needs and preferences.
Prediction
An expected outcome generated from a hypothesis
Theory
A hypothesis or set of hypotheses for which a large body of high-quality evidence has been accumulated.
Hierarchy of Evidence
- Systematic Reviews
- Randomized Controlled Trials
- Observational Research
- Peer Reviews
- Non-Peer-Reviewed Media, including anecdotes
Anecdote
an account of a person’s experience or event
Uncontrolled Variable
A variable in an experiment that a scientist makes no effort to manipulate or account for.
Primary Research
Original research where scientists perform experiments and collect data – this is in contrast to secondary research where scientists analyze data that has already been collected or published elsewhere.
Observational Research
Research in which a researcher observes ongoing behaviors to determine correlation.
Correlation
A relationship between two or more variables.
Randomized Control Trial (RCT)
A type of scientific study/trial where participants are randomly assigned into different groups – one or more will be the intervention to be tested and one will be the control group. Groups are randomized and a control is used in an attempt to reduce potential bias in the trial.
Independent Variable
The variable scientists manipulate in an experiment.
External Validity
The ability to generalize the results of a study.
Systematic Review
A review where scientists systematically gather all research on a topic and evaluate it based on predefined criteria and rules.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical analysis of a group of studies to assess the overall weight of the evidence.
Empirical
Based on observation or experience.
Test-Retest Reliability
The ability to get similar results when something is measured under the same conditions.
Reliability
The consistency of a measure.
Validity
The assessment of whether a tool is measuring what it is supposed to measure.
Selection Bias
A sample of people under study is not representative of the larger population that scientists are looking to make inferences about.
Retrospective
Describes a study that looks backward in time.
Recall Bias
The inability to accurately remember past behaviors.
Health
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Homeostasis
The tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.
Disease
A disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific signs or symptoms, affects a specific location, and is not simply a direct result of physical injury.
Noncommunicable Disease
A noncommunicable disease (NCD) is a medical condition or disease that is not caused by infectious agents; it can refer to chronic diseases which last for long periods of time and progress slowly.
Communicable Disease
Infectious diseases caused by microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that can be spread (directly or indirectly) from one person to another.
Wellness
The fluid process of improving the emotional, occupational, physical, social, intellectual, and spiritual components of life, dynamically leading to a better state of health and well-being.
Obese
A high degree of excess body fat – a BMI greater than 30.
Biometrics
The technical term for measurements and calculations related to human physical characteristics.
Satiety
A feeling of fullness and satisfaction.
Palatability
The degree of pleasure or taste provided by a food – a highly palatable food is one that is tasty and pleasant to consume.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
The energy currency of life.
chemical compound that provides energy to drive muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses, and the vast majority of chemical reactions that facilitate human life.
Metabolism
Chemical processes occurring within the body to convert food to energy.
Thermic Effect of Food (TEF)
represents the increase in energy expenditure after consuming a meal.
Thermic Effect of Activity (TEA)
accounts for the most variability of daily energy expenditure.
Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT)
energy expended for everything we do that is not sleeping, eating or exercising.
Lipogenesis
The biological process of combining free fatty acids with glycerol to form triglycerides.
Lipolysis
The biological process of breaking stored triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol.
Glycogenolysis
The process of breaking down the glycogen molecule into its individual glucose units for entry into the energy pathways.
Gluconeogenesis
A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol and glucogenic amino acids.
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
Ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.
CCK (cholecystokinin)
hormone released in the gastrointestinal system and is responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein.
NPY (neuropeptide Y)
neurotransmitter found in several brain areas, most notably the hypothalamus, that stimulates eating behavior and reduces metabolism, promoting positive energy balance and weight gain.
Insulin
hormone produced by the pancreas that is released when blood glucose levels are high, promoting the uptake of glucose for fuel or storage as glycogen. Insulin helps keeps blood-sugar levels from getting too high, also referred to as hyperglycemia.
Glucagon
hormone that is released when blood sugars decrease below a certain threshold. It stimulates the breakdown of stored glucose (glycogen) in the liver, releasing additional glucose into the bloodstream for fuel.
ATP-PC system
energy system producing ATP during high intensity, short duration exercise. Phosphocreatine decomposes and releases large amount of energy used to construct ATP. provides energy for muscle contraction for up to 10 seconds.
Anaerobic Glycolytic System
Glucose is used for fuel and is either blood glucose or muscle glycogen, broken down in to pyruvic acid, when there is insufficient oxygen it then is transformed into lactic acid. Energy up to 2 minutes.
Aerobic Energy System
virtually unlimited capacity for making ATP, uses carbs, fat, protein for fuel. Slow to produce ATP. Lasts anywhere from 2 minutes to a few hours.
Acid-Base Balance
The process of achieving, or the state of, equilibrium between acidic and alkaline molecules.
Cell Signaling
Process of communication between cells by biological messengers to govern cellular function.
Organic Molecules
Chemical structures containing only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and/or nitrogen.
Amino Acids
The organic building blocks of proteins containing both a carboxyl and an amino group.
Essential Amino Acids (EAA)
Amino acids that are necessary for bodily functions but cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, must be obtained in the diet.
Phenylalanine
Valine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Isoleucine
Methionine
Histidine
Arginine*
Lysine
Leucine
Branched Chain Amino Acid
The three essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) which are abundant in skeletal muscle tissue and named for their branch-like structure.
conditionally essential amino acids
amino acids that are normally considered nonessential but become essential under certain circumstances when the body’s need for them exceeds the ability to produce them.
nonessential amino acids
amino acids that the body can synthesize & normally do not need to be obtained in the diet.
protein synthesis
Process of joining amino acids with peptide bonds to form proteins.
dehydration synthesis
The joining of two large molecules by removing one hydrogen from one molecule and a hydroxyl group (OH) from another molecule and then binding the two larger molecules together on the newly freed bonds.
Peptide Bond
The bond between two amino acids, occurring between the carboxyl group of one and the amino group of the other.
Hydrolysis
Breakdown of one large molecule into two smaller molecules via the donation of one hydrogen and one hydroxyl group from water to the smaller molecules, respectively.
Dipeptide
Two amino acids bonded together
tripeptide
3 amino acids
oligopeptide
4-9 amino acids
Polypeptide
chain of 10 or more amino acids
Denaturation
changing the shape of a protein but not its primary structure.
Denaturation occurs in response to many factors such as temperature, pH, and enzymes, all of which are at work during protein digestion and absorption.
For most protein-dense foods, this process begins with cooking the food.
Gastrin
A hormone released when food is ingested to stimulate release of digestive fluids.
Pepsinogen
A proenzyme secreted by the stomach as a precursor to pepsin.
Pepsin
An enzyme in the stomach that begins breaking peptide bonds.
Duodenum
It is the first section of the small intestine where some digestion occurs, and it is located immediately after the stomach and leads into the jejunum.
Secretin
A hormone that stimulates the liver and pancreas to produce bile and bicarbonate; inhibits gastrin release.
Cholecystokinin
A hormone secreted by the duodenum that causes release of enzymes and bile.
protease enzymes
Enzymes in the small intestine that break long peptide chains into shorter peptide chains.
Peptidase
An enzyme that breaks down small peptides.
Aminopeptidases
Enzymes that cleave individual amino acids from a peptide chain so they may be absorbed.
Hepatic Portral Vein
The vein that transports blood from the spleen, stomach, pancreas, and the intestinal tract to the liver.
Collagen
A protein formed of a triple-helix structure with great tensile strength, found primarily in skin, muscles/connective tissue, and bones.
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material to resist breaking under tension.
Elastin
A protein with high elasticity, found mainly in the skin.
Keratin
A protein found in hair and nails.
sodium-potassium pump
A protein found on the cell membrane that transports sodium and potassium to create electrochemical gradients across the membrane.
Albumin
A protein found in the blood stream that helps draw water into the blood vessel from surrounding tissue.
Hemoglobin
An iron-containing protein found on red blood cells, binds oxygen and other molecules for transport in the blood.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
Amount of nutrient needed to meet the needs of almost all individuals in an age-sex group.
Protein Quality
The quantity of essential amino acids found in, and the digestibility of, a protein.
Complete Protein
A protein that contains sufficient quantities of all essential amino acids.
Complementary Protein
Two incomplete proteins that, when comsumed together, mimic a complete protein by providing all essential amino acids.
Starches
Grains, corn, rice barley, vegetables, beans, and wheat
Sugars
Sweets (candy), sugar (cane sugar), fruit, and milk
Monosaccharides
They define the single sugar units of glucose, fructose, and galactose and represent the absorbable forms of carbohydrates for the body.
Disaccharides
They define pairs of sugar units. The three nutritionally important ones to humans are sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
Polysaccharides
They define glucose chains longer than 10 units in length, but they can be as large as several thousand glucose units in length.
Oligosaccharides
They define sugar units ranging from 3 to 10 units in length and are largely indigestible to humans.
typically found in legumes
Sucrose
one glucose molecule joined with one fructose molecule. Examples include cane sugar, brown sugar, and date sugar. Sucrose contributes as a primary sugar in most fruits.
Lactose
comprised of one glucose molecule joined with one galactose molecule. It is only found in dairy products.
Maltose
comprised of two glucose molecules. Examples include corn syrup, brown rice syrup, and molasses.
Amylose
A straight-chain and digestible form of starch containing glucose molecules.
Amylopectin
A branched-chain and digestible form of starch containing glucose molecules.
Soluble Fiber
A type of dietary fiber that dissolves in water to form a gel, associated with heart health benefits and glucose control.
Insoluble Fiber
A type of dietary fiber that does not dissolve in water, associated with promoting bowel regularity.
Diverticulosis
A condition that occurs when pockets of collected stool called diverticula form in the walls of the digestive tract, forcing the inner layer of the intestinal wall to push through its outer lining.
Functional Fiber
A compound derived from isolated indigestible fiber to potentially provide some of the health-promoting benefits of natural fiber.
Glycogen
The storage molecule of carbohydrate found in animals and located in muscle and liver cells.
Triglycerides
The primary storage and transportable form of fats in the body, composed of three free fatty acids bound to a glycerol backbone.
Ketones
A group of incompletely metabolized fat fragments that are normally produced during fat metabolism in the absence of adequate carbohydrates.
Bolus
A mass of food that has been chewed and is now ready to initiate the swallowing process.
Chyme
The partially digested, semi-fluid mass of food expelled by the stomach to the duodenum.
Jejunum
It is the second section of the small intestine where digestion and absorption occur. It is located immediately after the duodenum and leads into the ileum.
Ileum
It is the final section of the small intestine where lots of absorption occurs. It is located immediately after the jejunum and leads into the large intestine.
Brush Border
The wall of the small intestine, composed of villi and microvilli, that enhance the region’s surface area for the final stages of digestion and absorption.
Villi
These are small, finger-like projections located on the walls of the intestine that extend into the intestinal tract that serve to increase the body’s surface area for absorption of nutrients.
Cirrhosis
A liver disease marked by the replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue that is a result of alcohol abuse.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
The development of a fatty liver resulting from excessive quantities of fats being deposited from causes that exclude alcohol.
Catabolic
The breakdown of nutrients to release energy.
Glycemic Load
A method for determining how the quantity of carbohydrates consumed impact blood sugar levels.
Hydrophobic
Water fearing – will not dissolve in, or react with, water.
Cardiovascular Disease
Conditions involving the narrowing or blockage of blood vessels that can cause a heart attack, chest pain, or stroke.
Lipids
Compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives.
Fatty Acids
Organic compounds with long hydrocarbon chains that are saturated or unsaturated.
Phospholipids
Comprised of two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a glycerol molecule. The phosphate group head is water soluble and the fatty acid tail is water insoluble. They align themselves to form the cell membrane.
Cholesterol
A lipid-like waxy substance found in all cell membranes, most body tissues, and body fluids – the body needs some cholesterol to make steroid hormones and vitamin D. Some cholesterol is obtained from foods like eggs, cheese, and shellfish. Most cholesterol is produced by the body.
Saturated Fatty Acids
Fatty acids that have the maximum number of hydrogen molecules and contain only single bonds between their carbon atoms. Foods high in saturated fatty acids are usually solid at room temperature (like butter) and are often found in animal fat, palm oil, and coconut oil.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Fatty acids that have one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms in the carbon chain. These are typically liquid at room temperature, relatively unstable, and are prone to oxidative damage.
Hydrogenation
The process of forcing hydrogen into vegetable oil to create a semi-solid or solid saturated fat.
Oxidative Damage
The imbalance of free radicals and antioxidants – free radicals are oxygen-containing molecules with an uneven number of electrons, which makes them susceptible to react with other molecules.
monounsaturated fatty acid
Unsaturated fats that have one unsaturated carbon molecule (two hydrogen atoms instead of four) or one double bond.
polyunsaturated fatty acid
Unsaturated fats that have two or more double bonds between carbon molecules.
Mediterranean Diet
Based on the traditional foods that people from Greece and Italy eat, including those foods rich in monounsaturated fats such as olive oil, nuts, and seeds.
Trans Fat
An artificial fatty acid that occurs when hydrogen is added to liquid vegetable oils (unsaturated fat) to make them more solid (saturated fat) and have a more stable shelf life.
Low-Density Lipoproteins
Lipoprotein that carries cholesterol from the liver to the cells, known as bad cholesterol.
High-Density Lipoproteins
Lipoprotein that carries excess cholesterol away from the cells to the liver where it is turned into bile or excreted, known as the good cholesterol.
Endothelial Dysfunction
Damage that occurs to the endothelium, the thin layer surrounding blood vessels.
GRAS
An acronym for the Generally Recognized as Safe list of any substance that is intentionally added to food – a food additive that has been recognized as safe by a group of experts.
FDA
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is responsible for protecting the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices, and by ensuring the safety of our nation’s food supply.
Dietary Fat
The fat and oils found in food that is consumed.
Adipose Tissue
The loose connective tissue composed of fat cells for stored energy.
Hydrophilic
Water loving – will dissolve in, and react with, water.
Essential Fatty Acids
Fatty acids that cannot be synthesized, or not in adequate amounts, and, therefore have to be consumed in the diet – they include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Fat soluble means that a compound or molecule can be dissolved into fat. Fat-soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and K.
Omega-3s (a-Linolenic)
Named based on the position of the first double bond in the carbon chain, Carbon 3, an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid that is found in fish, seafood, flaxseed oil, and walnuts.
Omega-6s (a-Linoleic)
Named based on the position of the first double bond in the carbon chain, Carbon 6, an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid that is found primarily in plant oils such as corn, soybean, and safflower.
EPA
Abbreviation for eicosapentaenoic acid, essential omega-3 fatty acid found in marine sources including fish and krill, serves as a precursor to various compounds that have anti-inflammatory activities in the body in addition to serving as structural components of the brain and eye tissue.
DHA
Abbreviation for docosahexaenoic acid, the essential omega-3 fatty acid found in marine sources including fish and krill, highly abundant in the human brain, eyes, and sperm cells.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)
The recommended intake of various nutrients as determined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine – the DRIs include recommendations like the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR).
Adequate Intake (AI)
The recommended average daily intake level based on observed or experimentally determined estimates of nutrient intake by groups of apparently healthy people that are assumed to be adequate – the AI is used when an RDA cannot be determined.
Membrane
A thin, soft, pliable layer that acts as a boundary, lining, or partition around an organism or cell.
Selective Permeability
Monitors what materials enter and exit a cell.
Adipocytes
Cells specialized in the storage of fat that makes up adipose tissue.
Emulsifier
A substance used to bind a hydrophobic and hydrophilic compound.
Enzymes
A protein molecule that acts as a catalyst to bring about a biochemical reaction, thus speeding up the process.
Digestion Process
- Mouth – chewing
- Stomach
- Small Intestine
- Portal Vein/Liver/Circulation
Bile
An alkaline fluid that aids in digestion – it is secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
Micelle
A compound comprised of bile salts (water-loving) surrounding monoglycerides, free fatty acids, and fat-soluble vitamins (water phobic) in order for absorption to occur.
Lymphatic System
An extensive network of vessels passing through almost all bodily tissues that produce and transport lymph (colorless fluid of white blood cells).
Lipoprotein Lipase
An enzyme found in the endothelium of the cells that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and a glycerol for the cell to use.
Endothelium
Cells that line the inner surface of blood vessels and other lymphatic tissue.
Beta-Oxidation
The process that occurs within the cell’s mitochondria to produce glycerol and fatty acids.
Acetyl-CoA
A molecule that participates in biochemical reactions in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid metabolism, producing energy.
Ketone Bodies
A group of incompletely metabolized fat fragments that are normally produced during fat metabolism in the absence of adequate carbohydrates.
Ethanol
The form of alcohol found in an alcoholic beverage.
Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH)
The primary enzyme involved in metabolism of ethanol.
First-Pass Metabolism
The initial metabolism of ethanol occurring in the stomach.
Rate of Absorption
The speed at which ethanol enters the bloodstream from the stomach.
Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)
The amount of ethanol in the blood relative to water.
Acetaldehyde
The toxic product of ethanol metabolism, which has to be further metabolized immediately to avoid its toxic effects.
Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase
The enzyme used to metabolize toxic acetaldehyde.
Moderate Drinking
A safe level of alcohol consumption recommended by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans – one standard drink per day for females, two standard drinks per day for males.
Standard Drink
Any alcoholic beverage that contains 0.6 ounces of ethanol.
High-Risk Drinking
The level of consumption at which the risk of alcohol-related harm is greatly increased.
Binge Drinking
Consumption of a large amount of alcohol in a single session.
Discretionary Energy
Calories left over in a diet once nutritional requirements have been met.
Micronutrients
Nutrients required in smaller quantities, including vitamins and minerals.
Coenzymes and Cofactors
Coenzymes and cofactors are compounds or molecules that help enzymes work. For example, vitamin C is a coenzyme that helps make collagen.
Metabolic Reactions
Metabolic reactions are chemical processes that occur in the body that help sustain life.
Mitochondria
Organelles (small structures inside cells) where the majority of energy production, specifically aerobic metabolism, occurs – “the powerhouse of the cell.”
Electron Transport Chain
A chemical process where most of the ATP in the body is produced – the basic principle behind the electron transport chain is that an electron gradient produces ATP.
Krebs Cycle
Also known as the Citric Acid cycle, a sequence of biochemical reactions through which most living organisms produce energy using aerobic metabolism (i.e., in the presence of oxygen).
Water-Soluble
The ability to be dissolved in water – for example, salt, which is sodium-chloride, dissolves in water and is considered water-soluble.
Vitamin B1
Commonly referred to as thiamine, is critical in the metabolism of sugar and amino acids as well as central nervous system function.
Beriberi
A condition of thiamine deficiency that affects either the cardiovascular system, the nervous system, or both.
Wernicke Encephalopathy
A disease of the brain that is the direct result of thiamine deficiency – It causes confusion and makes people uncoordinated.
Riboflavin
Also known as vitamin B2, critical in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fat.
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
A key molecule in regulating oxidation-reduction reactions, which are responsible for managing the oxidative balance in the body.
Antioxidant System
A series of chemical reactions in the body that help balance out molecular damage due to increase levels of oxidative stress, also responsible for maintaining enough oxidants for the body to function properly.
Redox System
The process and reaction between two substances in which one substance is oxidized and the other reduced.
Niacin
Commonly used name for vitamin B3, shares many similarities with vitamin B2 in that it is critical in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fat.
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)
A molecule that carries hydrogen ions and is used to make ATP, provides energy for our body.
Pantothenic Acid
Commonly used name for vitamin B5, a component to co-enzyme A (CoA) – CoA serves as a molecular link between glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle.
Vitamin B6
Represents a class of several related, but different molecules, each of which are important for optimal health.
Biotin
Commonly used name for vitamin B7.
Carboxylase Enzymes
Responsible for adding a carboxyl group to molecules – these carboxylation reactions are involved in almost every step in energy production.
Vitamin B12
The largest of the B-complex vitamins, comes in many forms, and contains a heavy metal/mineral in its molecular structure, specifically cobalt.
Folate
Commonly used name for vitamin B9, helps regulate single-carbon transfers, both accepting and donating single carbons to chemical reactions.
Vitamin C
Referred to as ascorbic acid, Vitamin C is one of the more robust vitamins. It plays myriad roles in the human body.
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
The pain and stiffness that is felt several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise – muscle soreness typically sets in between 1 and 3 days post exercise.
Choline
An essential nutrient, a source of methyl groups needed for many steps in metabolism.
Ergogenic Aid
Something that improves either physical or mental performance.
Fat-Soluble
A compound or molecule that can be dissolved into fat.
Compound
A thing that is composed of two or more separate elements.
Retinoids
A class of chemical compounds that are vitamers of vitamin A.
Retinol
Also known as Vitamin A, retinol helps in vision, bone growth, reproduction, growth of epithelium, and fighting infections.
Retinal
Also known as retinaldehyde, one of many forms of vitamin A.
Retinoic Acid
A metabolite of vitamin A that mediates the functions of vitamin A required for growth and development.
Vitamin D
A fat-soluble vitamin present in very few foods – much of the vitamin D found in our bodies comes from the conversion of cholesterol from direct exposure to sunlight. This makes it unique among the fat-soluble vitamins in that dietary sources are often not sufficient to maintain adequate levels. Sunlight and/or supplementation is necessary.
Vitamin E
A class of compounds – the most common ones are known as the tocopherols and the tocotrienols, each of which have four types: alpha, beta, gamma, and delta. Vitamin E is one of the main antioxidant molecules in the body and it protects cells from oxidative damage.
Vitamin K
A family of compounds that have a similar structure and function – they are involved in regulating blood clotting as well as calcium metabolism.
Calcium
A mineral that is required for life and helps the body build bones and maintain their strength.
Osteoporosis
A condition of weakened bones where bones lose their density – calcium is a key piece of bone structure and calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis.
Chromium
An essential trace mineral that can improve insulin sensitivity and enhance macronutrient metabolism.
Trace Element
An element that is only required in minute amounts in the human body.
Redox System
The process and reaction between two substances in which one substance is oxidized and the other reduced.
Nonessential Mineral
Minerals that are not required for human function and/or optimal health.
Goiter
The swelling of the neck resulting from enlargement of the thyroid gland.
Hypothyroidism
A condition in which your thyroid does not produce enough thyroid hormones.
Myoglobin
A protein that carries and stores oxygen in muscle cells.
Heme
A form of dietary iron found only in animal meat.
Nonheme
A form of dietary iron found in plant-based foods.
Magnesium
A mineral that is required for energy production, oxidative phosphorylation, and glycolysis.
Mercury
A trace element that finds its way into the human diet, has no necessary function, and is highly toxic, especially during development in utero and early childhood.
Potassium
A mineral that is present in all tissues in the body and is required for maintaining concentration gradients, fluid volume, and cardiac rhythm.
Hypokalemia
A condition where the concentration of potassium in the blood drops below normal levels.
Selenium
The key component of several selenoproteins that serve as antioxidants or in the regeneration of antioxidants.
Sodium
A mineral that is present in virtually every tissue of the body and is essential for maintaining gradient balance, fluid status, and cardiac rhythm.
Hyponatremia
A condition where the concentration of sodium in the blood drops below normal levels – this often happens when people sweat a lot or consume too much water and not enough electrolytes.
Zinc
A mineral that provides structure to cells and helps reactions occur – it is the most abundant intracellular of the trace elements and plays regulatory roles in transcription via transcription factors, stabilizes nucleic acids, and is neccesary for the creation of tubulin, giving cells their internal rigid structure and allowing them to properly maintain their shape and function.
Bioavailability
The extent to which an ingredient, food, or other substance is absorbed by the body.
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)
A nutrient intake value that is estimated to meet the requirement of half the healthy individuals in a group.
Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)
The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population – as intake increases above the UL, the risk of adverse effects increases.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
The water contained within a cell’s membrane, makes up approximately 2/3 of total body water.
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
The water found outside of the body’s cells – ECF is found between cells and transported throughout the body via arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Osmolality
Describes the concentration of solutes in a liquid – various compartments hold fluids but the primary regulator of hydration status is the osmolality of ECF, specifically plasma osmolality. Multiple sites in the body house osmoreceptors that detect shifts in osmolality and generate responses to return the body to fluid and sodium homeostasis.
Dipsogenic Signal
Physiological factors such as high osmolality or low blood pressure, which prompt sodium and water appetite.
Baroreceptors
Specialized nerves that can sense change in pressure in the heart or blood vessels.
Hypo-Osmotic
A solution with a lesser concentration of solute (i.e., fresh water compared to salt water).
Gastric Emptying Rate (GER)
The rate at which fluids and their contents pass through the stomach via the pyloric sphincter and into the small intestine – the faster and more complete the GER, the more quickly carbohydrates and electrolytes can be absorbed into the mesentery system, where they feed the liver first and then the rest of the body via the vascular system.
Convection
The movement or flow of air over an object.
Euhydration
A normal hydration status.
Ad Libitum
Translates to “as desired” and refers to eating or drinking as you are normally driven to (i.e., not purposely overeating or undereating).
Exercise Associated Hyponatremia (EAH)
A potentially serious medical condition in which the plasma sodium falls below 135 mmol/L, usually the result of fluid intake greatly exceeding sweat losses during prolonged exercise.
Urine-Specific Gravity (USG)
A measurement that represents the ratio of solutes in the urine versus distilled water.
Recovery Hydration
Fluid and electrolyte intake between two consecutive training sessions or competitions.
Endogenous
Inside or internal.
Intramuscular Triglycerides
A group of lipids that are esters formed from one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of one or more fatty acids, stored within the muscle.
Substrate
A molecule that is acted upon by an enzyme.
Exogenous
Outside or external.
Isocaloric
The same number of calories.
Current Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP)
Current standards of practice set forth by the U.S. Food and Drug Manufacturers for dietary supplement manufactures.
What are manufacturers of dietary supplements required to do?
They are obligated to make accurate label claims and are prohibited from marketing supplements to prevent, treat, cure or diagnose a disease.
They do not have to be approved by the FTC or the FDA prior to their sale and marketing
Guidelines for Selecting Dietary Supplements
- Verify the ingredients are supported with solid evidence for efficacy and safety from scientific reviews, reputable organizations, and/or well-designed human studies.
- Determine whether ingredient forms and dosages in product formulas match evidence-based recommendations.
- Check if the product is independently tested to verify label accuracy. For athletes, third-party testing for banned substances is critical.
- Request independent research from companies that verifies the claims for their products.
Underconsumption of Essential Nutrients
Data shows that many Americans under-consume key vitamins and minerals that support optimal health, including vitamins A, C, D, and E, choline, potassium, magnesium, iron, calcium, and fiber. Underconsumption of essential nutrients is a key public-health concern.
Creatine Monohydrate
Creatine monohydrate is synthesized endogenously in the liver and kidneys from amino acids and is stored primarily in muscle tissue. Its role is to regenerate intracellular ATP stores via the phosphocreatine system during high-intensity activity. Creatine can also be obtained from food, namely beef, poultry, and seafood.
Short-term use of creatine monohydrate at 20 grams/day, divided into 5-gram dosages four times a day for 5 to 7 days, can enhance anaerobic exercise capacity and performance. Continued use with a daily maintenance dose of 3 to 5 grams may improve strength, power, and performance due to greater training adaptations.
Muscle Protein Synthesis (MPS)
The synthesizing of amino acids into skeletal muscle tissue.
Protein Balance
The net result of protein synthesis and breakdown.
Lean Body Mass
The proportion of the human body that excludes fat mass, including organs, muscle, and bone.
Anabolic Resistance
A blunted muscle synthesis response to resistance training, amino acids, and protein – observed more in older adults than younger populations.
Leucine
An essential and branched chain amino acid, identified as the initiator of muscle protein synthesis.
Whey Protein
Whey protein concentrate is the liquid fraction of milk and is typically about 80% protein with small amounts of carbohydrates, fat, and lactose.
Lactose
A naturally occurring sugar present in milk and milk products.
Casein Protein
Casein makes up 80% of the protein in milk. Although it is a complete protein source, it contains less leucine and is insoluble in acid, forming clots in the stomach acid, thereby leading to slower digestion and absorption. As such, casein protein supplementation has been shown to stimulate MPS to a lesser extent than whey protein supplementation and leads to lower resistance-training-induced gains in lean mass
Plant Protein
Plant-based protein supplements are growing in popularity and are often composed of one or more protein sources from soy, peas, rice, and others. In terms of stimulating MPS, soy protein has been shown to be inferior to whey and casein due to lower leucine content, fewer essential amino acids, and lower bioavailability
Bioavailability
The extent to which an ingredient, food, or other substance is absorbed by the body.
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)
A range of intakes for carbohydrates, protein, and fats set by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Medicine recommended to meet the nutritional needs of most individuals and reduce risk of chronic disease.
HMB (Hydroxy-Methylbutyrate)
Hydroxy-Methylbutyrate is a byproduct of the essential branched chain amino acid, leucine, identified as the primary initiator of muscle protein synthesis.
Caffeine
Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine) is a naturally occurring substance in coffee beans, kola nuts, guarana seeds, yerba mate, and tea leaves, and it is also synthesized in a lab as caffeine anhydrous. It stimulates the nervous system and has been shown to modestly increase daily energy expenditure, decrease energy intake, reduce perceived-effort-level of exercise, and improve feelings of energy and alertness
Low to moderate doses of caffeine at 3 to 4 milligrams/kilograms of body weight, not to exceed 400 to 500 milligrams/day
Capsaicin
Capsaicin is one of five naturally present capsaicinoids in red chili peppers and is purported to be a natural weight control due to its ability to stimulate thermogenesis, increase body temperature, and decrease food intake
Capsaicin may have a slight positive impact on energy expenditure, appetite, and food intake when consumed in 2- to 4-milligram doses before meals.
Meal Replacements
Supplements promoted as fat burners have a limited impact on weight loss with most ingredients lacking quality evidence. However, the use of protein-rich meal replacements one to two times/day has been shown to improve weight-loss success, body composition, and maintenance of a healthy body weight.
Beta Alanine
For healthy individuals who perform primarily high-intensity exercise lasting 30 seconds to 10 minutes, beta alanine supplementation may offer a performance benefit. Typical use includes a 2- to 4-week loading phase using 4 to 6 grams daily in divided doses. Skin tingling, a phenomenon known as paresthesia, is a reported side effect and may be minimized by taking daily doses in two to three smaller servings throughout the day and may diminish with continued use.
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate acts as a buffering agent during high-intensity training between 60 seconds and 10 minutes. Typical use includes single doses of 0.2 to 0.4 gram/kilogram body weight taken 1 to 2.5 hours before exercise or split doses over 3 hours. GI upset is reported with use and may be alleviated with split doses and/or ingestion with carbohydrate.
Psychology
The study of the mind and behaviors.
Quantitative Research
Focuses on variables that can be directly measured and assessed.
Qualitative Research
Focuses on people in terms of how situations and experiences are perceived and how people interact and utilizes interviews and observations where the results are grouped together by themes that have emerged.
Empathy
The ability to identify with another person’s feelings, attitudes, or thoughts.
Enhances the relationship with the client by building trust and improving communication
Stages of Change Model: Precontemplation
When an individual is not thinking of changing and has no intention to change.
Stages of Change Model: Contemplation
When a person is thinking about implementing change but has not yet taken any steps to get started – an individual may take action within the next 6 months.
Stages of Change Model: Preparation
When a person intends to change behavior and is preparing to change, but has not yet taken action.
Stages of Change Model: Maintenance
When a person has successfully implemented a behavioral change for more than 6 months.
Stages of Change Model: Relapse
When a person has stopped doing the positive behavior and has returned to a previous negative behavior.
Self-Esteem
How an individual views themself with regard to their worthiness and abilities.
Self-Efficacy
The confidence that a person has that he or she can successfully engage in the behaviors required for a certain outcome.
Body Reality
Based on a person’s measurable attributes such as height, weight, body-fat percentage, and waist circumference.
Body Ideal
Refers to what a person believes or wishes their own body looked like.
Body Image
How someone perceives his or her body to look, which may not be how the person actually looks.
Confidence
A feeling about or a belief in one’s abilities or attributes.
Vicarious Experiences
When something is experienced through another person’s actions or behaviors.
Social Persuasion
This is where encouragement, empathy, and being positive are crucial. Being an advocate for the behavioral change, being a cheerleader for the client, and providing ongoing accountability will show the client that he or she has support. When it comes to making a change regarding diet and exercise, it is possible that the only consistent support comes from the trainer or coach. Checking in frequently and coaching clients on how to navigate potentially difficult situations will allow the client to realize success and increase self-efficacy
Anti-Fat Bias
Placing a negative judgment on overweight and obese individuals.
Sedentary Behavior
Any behaviors, such as sitting or lying down, that require little energy expenditure.
Social Support
All the ways that someone is supported by others, including emotional support, providing information, or assistance.
Emotional Support
Providing encouragement, accountability, or empathy to another person.
Informational Support
Providing facts and educating others.
Social Networks
Social structure made up of various interactions or relationships between groups of people.
Willpower
The ability to control impulses.
Disordered Eating
Patterns of abnormal eating behaviors that do not meet the criteria for diagnosis of an eating disorder.
Distress
The experience of negative feelings, such as anxiety, sorrow, or pain.
Depression
A mood disorder characterized by a persistent feeling of sadness and/or loss of interest in everyday life.
Anorexia Nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by extremely low body BMI.
<15 extremely dangerous
Bulimia Nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors, including purging, use of laxatives or diuretics, fasting, or excessive exercise to avoid weight gain.
Binge-Eating Disorder
Eating disorder characterized by frequent consumption of an unusually large amount of food along with a feeling of loss of control and/or the inability to stop eating.
Mindless Eating
Eating without attention to or awareness of the food being consumed.
Mindful Eating
Paying attention to the food being eaten, acknowledging hunger and satiety signals, and adjusting food intake accordingly.
Communication
Process of sending and receiving messages through verbal and nonverbal means.
Soft Skills
Personal attributes related to how well one works with others.
Self-Awareness
Knowledge of one’s own habits, feelings, and motivations.
Nonverbal Communication
Exchange of information through wordless cues.
Verbal Communication
The words used to convey a message.
Denotation
Literal meaning of a word.
Connotation
Emotional or perceived meaning of a word.
Active Listening
Act of mindfully hearing and attempting to comprehend the meaning of words spoken in a conversation.
Stages of Listening: Receiving
Intentional focus on hearing what the client is sharing.
Stages of Listening: Understanding
Identify meaning of what is being said.
Stages of Listening: Remembering
Relates to how much is remembered about what the client has shared.
Stages of Listening: Evaluation
Identify individual differences and barriers key to program development and success.
Stages of Listening: Responding
Provide feedback shared by the client.
Reflection
Paraphrasing words and emotions during active listening.
Closed-Ended Question
Simple and direct question that can only be answered with a yes-or-no response.
Open-Ended Question
Questions that create an opportunity to share experiences and views.
Probing Questions
Questions used when more detail or information is needed.
Divergent Questioning
Broad questions that have no right or wrong answer.
Rapport
A relationship based on mutual understanding and trust.
Client-Centered
Coaching approach in which clients are understood and program development is based on client needs and preferences.
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
A client-centered coaching style that helps clients resolve ambivalence and elicit behavior change.
Ambivalence
The state of having mixed feelings about change – a client with ambivalence wants to change and at the same time does not want to change.
Proximal Rewards
Rewards that are immediate – for example, the pleasure of eating high-sugar, high-fat foods.
Distal Rewards
Rewards that are far away, such as a loss of 30 pounds.
Motivational Phase
The build-up of mental energy that drives the desire to behave in certain ways – behavior often needs plans.
Planning Phase
Point where individuals decide how they will turn their motivation into behavior.
Motivation
The collective reasons that drive a person to take action.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
A motivational theory that describes individuals psychological needs for growth – self-determination theory also describes different types of motivational regulation and considers these regulations anywhere on a continuum of motivation.
Amotivation
A state in which a person is not motivated to behave.
Extrinsic Motivation
When a behavior is done for any reason outside of inherent pleasure.
Intrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is directed by personal (internal) satisfaction such as personal enjoyment as well as striving for self-determination and competence.
Controlled Motives
Those with motives who feel outside or internal pressure to do certain behaviors.
Autonomous Motives
Behaviors that are enacted with a sense of volition and choice – autonomously motivated people want to do the behavior.
External Regulation
Behavior performed to achieve some external reward or to avoid punishment – it is reflective of complying with other people’s demands.
Introjected Regulation
Behavior performed to avoid negative feelings (i.e., shame or guilt) or to enhance positive feelings (i.e., ego).
Identified Regulation
Behavior performed because it is valued and personally important.
Integrated Regulation
Behavior performed because it is fully congruent with a person’s values and needs.
Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)
The support of a client regardless of what they say or do – it is the belief that the client is trying their best despite perceived destructive behaviors.
Autonomy
The feeling of freedom from external influences or control – the individual is perceived to be the source of their own behavior.
Change Talk
When the client voices the benefits of change and disadvantages of staying the same.
Self-Regulation
An individual’s ability to modify their behavior.
Value Exploration
Clients discover why the goal is important to them. They then create specific behavior-oriented goals based on what their values are.
Value Prioritization
When values are prioritized, behaviors are linked with the client’s personal sense of a desired identity.
Motivational Interviewing Strategies
- Express empathy through reflective listening
- Help clients identify discrepancies between their values or goals and their behavior
- Support self-efficacy
- Avoid arguments
- Adjust to client resistance
Reflective Listening
Listening that clarifies and expresses an understanding of a person’s own experiences and goals.
Fundamental Attribution Error
When a person’s behavior is attributed to “the way they are” rather than to external factors.
Affirmation
A positive statement about a client’s character that acknowledges their efforts.
Transtheoretical Model (TTM)
Behavioral change model that demonstrates progression through stages until the change becomes part of the everyday lifestyle.
Objective Goals
Attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually within a specified time.
Subjective Goals
General statements that are not easily measurable or objective.
Outcome Goals
Goals usually focused on the end result and are in relation to another person, usually in the form of a competition.
Performance Goals
Goals in relation to one’s own level of performance or behavior.
Process Goals
Goals focused on helping individuals to actually reach their performance goal.
Goal Specificity
Goals that are objective and can be easily measured.
Goal Proximity
Goals that are either short- or long-term.
Goal Difficulty
How hard (or easy) it is to reach a goal.
Goal Commitment
The degree to which an individual is invested in achieving his or her goal.
Goal Type
Outcome, performance, and process goals.
Self-Monitoring
Recording and evaluating one’s own daily behaviors, usually in the form of a journal or calendar.
Goal Setting (SMART)
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Timely
Decision Balance Sheet
A technique to help people make decisions about starting a specific program or not.
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
A resource produced by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provides guidelines and key recommendations for healthy diets that may help prevent diet-related chronic conditions.
The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine
An entity within the National Academies of Sciences that establishes principles and guidelines of adequate dietary intake among other tasks.
Recommended Dietary Allowance
Amount of nutrient needed to meet the needs of almost all individuals in an age-sex group.
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)
A range of intakes for carbohydrates, protein, and fats set by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Medicine recommended to meet the nutritional needs of most individuals and reduce risk of chronic disease.
Carbs: 45-65%
Fat: 25-35%
Protein: 10-35%
3 Principles of Healthy Eating Patterns
- An eating pattern represents the totality of all foods and beverages consumed
- Nutritional needs should be met primarily from nutrient-dense foods
- Healthy eating patterns are adaptable
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
The amount of energy (i.e., number of calories) an individual uses at rest in order to sustain basic processes in the body – this value is often considered for a 24-hour period.
Adiposity
A condition of being severely overweight or obese.
Dietary Assessment
Analyzing a client’s food and beverage intake in order to determine their intake of calories and specific nutrients – specific forms of dietary assessment include 24-hour recalls, usual intake, diet records, and food frequency questionnaires.
Usual Intake
The average daily intake of food or nutrients clients consume over a long period of time.
Diet Record
Diet records are a common method of dietary assessment, particularly with the wide availability of mobile diet record apps. Diet records are essentially a list of all food items eaten within a specific period of time.
Food Frequency Questionnaire
Food frequency questionnaires are designed to provide a big-picture view of the diet and allow for identification of intakes of particular food groups. These questionnaires often consist of a series of multiple-choice questions designed to identify the frequency of consumption of major categories of food (i.e., grain products, vegetables, fruits, meats, poultry, seafood, dairy, fats/oils, sweets, etc.).
Body Composition
The makeup of an individual’s body – major components of interest include fat mass and fat-free mass (i.e., water, bone, protein, etc.)
Body Mass Index (BMI)
An individual’s weight divided by their height squared, typically shown in units of kilograms/meters².
2-Compartment Model
Any method of body-composition assessment that divides the body into two major parts – typically, these parts are fat mass and fat-free mass. Most common methods of body-composition assessment use a 2-compartment model.
3-Compartment Model
A method of body composition assessment that divides the body into three major parts – typically, these parts are fat mass, water, and everything else (i.e., the residual).
4-Compartment Model
A method of body composition assessment that divides the body into four major parts – typically, these parts are fat mass, water, bone, and everything else (i.e., the residual). These models are viewed as a gold-standard method of body-composition assessment.
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
A technology that estimates body composition based on the fluid content – by determining how easily small electrical currents travel through the body, BIA can predict the amount of lean tissue (higher water content and easier flow of electricity) and fat tissue (lower water content and more resistance to electrical currents).
Skinfold Method
A body composition estimation method that is based on measuring the thickness of the fat layer under the skin – using calipers, the skin and fat are pinched at certain locations on the body to determine their thickness. These measurements are placed into a series of equations, which provide an estimate of body-fat percentage.
Body Density
The estimated thickness of fat under the skin at specific locations when entered into an equation.
Ultrasound Technology
Uses high-frequency sound waves emitted by a probe to visualize different parts of the body.
Circumference Measurements
Measurements of the circumferences of different body parts – these measurements provide some basic indication about the distribution of fat in the body, although they cannot actually distinguish between muscle and fat.
Underwater Weighing (Hydrodensitometry)
A body composition assessment method that involves the estimation of the 3-dimensional volume of the body through measurement of an individual’s body weight while they are completely submerged under water.
Air Displacement Plethysmography (ADP)
A body composition assessment method that involves the estimation of the 3-dimensional volume of the body through measurement of an individual’s displacement of air while they sit in a sealed chamber.
Dual-Energy- X Ray Absorptiometry (DXA)
A body composition assessment method that measures whole-body and regional (arms, legs, and trunk) body composition using low-energy X-rays.
Infrared 3-Dimensional Scanning
A body composition assessment method that involves the estimation of the 3-dimensional volume of the body using infrared sensors.
Computed Tomography (CT)
Imaging procedure to create scans and pictures of inside the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A medical imaging process that measures the reaction of tissue nuclei to magnetic fields to produce images of inside the body.
Hydrometry
The process of monitoring water within the body to determine body composition.
Near-Infrared Interactance (NIR)
A technique using a specialized probe against the body, emitting infrared light to estimate body composition of an individual.
Requirements of a Food Label
- The number of servings per container
- Serving size
- Total calories per serving
- Amount of total fat per serving (in grams), saturated fat (in grams), and trans fat (in grams)
- Cholesterol (in milligrams)
- Sodium (in milligrams)
- Total Carbohydrates (in grams)
- Dietary Fiber (in grams)
- Total Sugars and Added Sugars (in grams)
- Protein (in grams)
- Amounts and the Percent Daily Value for the following vitamins and minerals: Vitamin D, calcium, iron, and potassium
Servings Per Container
The number of servings of a food or dietary supplement provided in a package, based on the specified serving size.
Serving Size
Reference amount for a food or dietary supplement for which nutrition/supplement information is provided.
Portion Size
The amount of food an individual chooses to serve themselves.
Percent Daily Value
The amount in a serving contributed toward the recommended daily value for a nutrient, based on a 2000-calorie diet.
Total Sugars
The total amount of sugar in a food (includes both added and naturally occurring sugars in a food).
Added Sugar
The amount of sugar that has been added to a food product (does not include sugar that is a natural part of the food).
Reference Intakes
A reference recommended amount of a nutrient for healthy individuals.
Nutrient Density
The amount of nutrients provided by a food or meal relative to the total calories in the meal.
Nutrient Quality
Refers to the amount and variety of nutrients provided in a food or meal.
Calorie Deficit
Where energy (calorie) expenditure exceeds energy (calorie) intake.
Metabolic Ward Study
A study where participants are kept in a ward where they can be closely monitored at all times – this allows for precise measurements of metrics like energy expenditure or precise recording of food intake. These studies are extremely high-quality, well-controlled studies.
Hyperpalatable
Foods that are ultra-processed and made to be highly appealing to our senses.
Anaerobic System
This describes energy production systems/pathways in the body in which oxygen is not present. Activity that leads to energy production via the anaerobic system will cause an accumulation in hydrogen ions and lactic acid.
Anabolic Response
Where there is net-positive protein balance (i.e., there is more protein synthesis than there is protein breakdown) – there is a net building of protein.
Western Diet
The Western Diet (sometimes called the Standard American diet) refers to a dietary pattern consisting of high intakes of processed foods, prepackaged foods, fried foods, high-sugar drinks, and foods high in both refined carbohydrate and fat.
Energy Dense
Containing a high amount of calories relative to the volume or weight of the food.
Gluten
A collection of proteins found in grains – in wheat, gluten covers two related proteins: gliadin and glutenin.
Celiac Disease
An autoimmune disorder where the protein gluten causes the body to mount an immune response, which leads to damage to the small intestine.
Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS)
A clinical condition induced by the ingestion of gluten leading to intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms that improve once the gluten-containing foodstuff is removed from the diet and celiac disease and wheat allergy have been excluded.
Organic Foods
Any food product that is certified organic by the United States Department of Agriculture and, therefore, meets certain criteria for agricultural and animal-husbandry practices.
Organic produce has 4-fold lower levels of pesticide residues than conventional produce
Switching from conventional to organic produce significantly reduces biomarkers of pesticide exposure in as little as 5 to 7 days in adults and children
Organic crops have 17% more total antioxidant activity and 18-69% greater concentrations of specific polyphenolic compounds than conventional crops
Conventional Foods
Any food product that comes from the intensive agricultural and animal-husbandry methods employed in the United States (e.g., heavy pesticide use and concentrated animal feedlots).
Concentrate Feed
Feed that provides highly concentrated sources of nutrients and supplementation to livestock.
Colloquialism
The use of ordinary or familiar words or phrases.
Secondary Metabolites
Natural compounds produced by bacteria, fungi, or plants, which are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism.
Benefits of Polyphenols
Brain function
Vascular health
cancer prevention
inflammation management
Polyphenols
Class of natural chemicals found abundantly in plants that have unique biological effects when consumed.
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
A hazardous natural chemical compound that is resistant to biodegradation and thus remains in the environment for a long time.
Organic Meats
47% more omega-3 fatty acids than conventional meat with minimal differences in other nutrients
More EPA, DHA, vitamin A, vitamin E
Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA)
An essential omega-3 fatty acid that is converted into EPA and DHA within the body, albeit in limited amounts.
Grass-Fed and Finished
Refers to animals that have been raised in an ecologically appropriate way; allowed to forage and graze on pasture throughout life.
Lutein
A carotenoid that plays an important role within the human brain and retina as an antioxidant.
Diet of Chickens
As with meat and milk, the diet of chickens influences the nutrient content of their eggs. Pastured hens lay eggs with significantly more omega-3 fatty acids (3.5x more), including a notable increase in DHA, less omega-6 fatty acids, and a lower omega-3 to omega-6 ratio than their conventional or organic counterparts.
GMOs
Any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques (e.g., bacteria-mediated recombination)
Benefits of GMOs
GMO crops used = less acres farmed
Increased crop yields
Increased nutrient content
Improvements in food processing
Decreased pesticide exposure
Risks of GMOs
Increased pesticide exposure
Expression of allergenic proteins
Changes in metabolite concentrations
Acrylamide
An extremely hazardous chemical that can be produced by the cooking of starchy foods (e.g., French fries).
Wheat Allergy
A food allergy to wheat.
Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity
A clinical condition induced by the ingestion of gluten leading to intestinal and/or extraintestinal symptoms that improve once the gluten-containing foodstuff is removed from the diet and celiac disease and wheat allergy have been excluded.
Fermentable, Oligo-, Di-, Monosaccharides, and Polyols (FODMAPs)
Naturally occurring short-chain carbohydrates poorly absorbed in the small intestine.
Intestinal Permeability
Term describing the control of material passing from inside the small intestine to the rest of the body, also known as leaky gut.
Zonulin
A product that modulates the permeability of tight junctions between cells of the small intestine.
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
An endotoxin produced by gram-negative bacteria that elicit an inflammatory response if absorbed into circulation from the gastrointestinal tract.
Whole-Meal Grains
A cereal grain or pseudograin that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran
Pseudograins
Grass seeds used in the same way as true cereal grains, often serving as a replacement (e.g., ground into flour or consumed as porridge) – examples include amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa.
Added Sugar Recommendations
Some health authorities recommend that no more than 5% of energy intake comes from added sugars. For a standard 2,000-kcal diet, this amounts to about 25 grams of added sugar or roughly ½ of a can of soda pop. That is not a lot and speaks volumes on how quickly these hidden sugars can add up.
High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)
A sweetener made from the enzymatic conversion of corn starch into glucose and fructose.
Phosphofructokinase
The enzyme that turns fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate, a key regulatory step in the glycolytic pathway
De Novo Lipogenesis (DNL)
The process by which fatty acids are synthesized from other compounds (e.g., glucose) within the liver.
Isotopic Tracer
Any radioactive atom detectable in a material in a chemical, biological, or physical system and used to mark that material for study, to observe its progress through the system, or to determine its distribution.
Non-Nutritive Sweeteners (NNS)
A zero-calorie food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar.
Artificial Sweetener
A synthetic nonnutritive sweetener.
Substituting non-nutritive sweetener for sugar
A meta-analysis of 15 randomized controlled trials reported that substituting NNS for sugar modestly reduced body weight, fat mass, and waist circumference among people who were overweight and obese.
The Health Halo Effect
Describes a psychological phenomenon whereby people eat more of something they perceive as being healthy
It is an unconscious sabotage to dieters and can definitely mask any benefit of replacing sugar with NNS.
Type 2 Diabeters and Glycemic Control
NNS do not generally affect blood glucose or insulin like sugars do after consuming them.
However, emerging research is linking chronic use of NNS to worse glycemic control, which could provide an explanation for their link to Type 2 diabetes.
Differences between fructose and glucose
Fructose is metabolized primarily within the liver
The body continues to create energy from fructose even if the body doesn’t need it
Detox and Cleansing Programs
The process of attempting to purify the body from ill-defined toxins through restrictive dieting and foolhardy supplementation (e.g., The Master Cleanse or Fat Flush).
What following statement would be the best approach to explaining detoxification to a client?
We all have a natural ability to detoxify our bodies within the liver and then excreted via bile to the kidneys. To support our body’s ability to do so should be done by eating nutrient-dense foods rich in vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.
What are some downsides to juicing fruits and vegetables compared to consuming them raw?
Lack fiber
Lose out on some phytochemicals
Plataeu
A period of stalled progress of 1 month or longer.
Energy Balance
The amount of calories consumed compared to the amount of calories expended.
Dietary Adherence
The degree to which an individual sticks with a diet.
Predicts weight regain after weight loss; in fact, people with low dietary adherence show greater weight regain at 1 to 2 years compared to people with high adherence.
If a client has hit a plateau, the most likely reason (according to the scientific research) is a loss of dietary adherence.
Physiological Causes of Dietary Adherence Lapse
Increase in appetite as a response to regain lost weight; people who have lost weight will not naturally “detect” if they are eating too much
They can end up inadvertently overeating, hitting a weight plateau, or regaining weight.
This is a natural response by the body to try to regain the lost weight.
Reduced Obese
Obese people who have lost weight.
Psychological Causes of Dietary Adherence Lapse
Resisting Temptation – social events, peer pressure
Stress-related eating
Decision making
Confusion
Perception of Choice
Difficulty with meal and snack plan
Lower palatability
Environmental Causes of Dietary Adherence Lapse
Social and Cultural Contexts
Cost
Work-related issues
Small portion sizes
Family support
Maintenance Practice
Periods of body weight plateaus where a client practices maintenance of habits and becomes used to the new body weight.
Metabolic Adaptation
A greater-than-expected decrease in energy expenditure due to weight loss.
Buffet Effect
The tendency for people to eat more when offered a wide variety of foods.
Energy Density
The amount of calories relative to the volume or weight of a food, often expressed in calories per gram.
Optimal Foraging Theory (OFT)
Refers to how human brains assign value to food – OFT is defined by the calories gained from a food relative to how much energy and time is needed to obtain it.
Impaired Satiety Signals
A loss of effectiveness of the signals that travel to the brain and tell people they are full.
Factors Associated with Weight Maintenance
Low fat, low energy density diets
Less variety
High physical activity levels
Consistent meal patterns and maintaining consistency throughout the week
Consistent self-monitoring
Greater initial weight loss and dietary adherence
Reaching a self-determined goal weight
Factors Associated with Weight Regain
Sedentary lifestyle
Disinhibited eating
Dichotomous view of foods and a rigid approach to dieting
Binge eating
Emotional eating, psychosocial stress, and low coping capacity
Lack of social support
Diet burnout
Weight Cycling
Repetitive cycles of weight loss followed by weight regain where most or all of the weight is gained back.
Intermittent Dietary Strategies
Alternating periods of energy restriction with periods of maintenance or diet breaks.
Programming
The action or process of scheduling something.
Nutrition Programming Steps
- Set a Goal (weight loss, muscle gain, both, sport performance)
- Determine the total daily energy requirements adjusted for the goal.
- Set the protein macronutrient requirement
- Set the fat macronutrient requirement
- Set the carbohydrate nutrient requirement
- Individualize and convert numbers to food and habits
- Monitor, evaluate, and adjust
Periodization
Division of a training program into smaller, progressive stages.
Interfering Effects
Effects that directly interfere with adaptations of specific training modalities.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to keep vital functions going, such as breathing and keeping warm.
Thermic Effect of Activity (TEA)
The energy expended during all forms of activity.
Thermic Effect of Food (TEF)
The amount of energy (calories) expended to digest and metabolize food.
TDEE Formula
BMR x Activity Factor
Monitor
Observe and check the progress or quality of something over a period of time; keep under systematic review.
Evaluate
The assessment, as systematic and objective as possible, of a planned, ongoing, or completed program that covers its need, design, implementation, impact, efficiency, and sustainability, so as to incorporate lessons learned into the decision-making process about the program.
Teach-Back Method
The teach-back method measures understanding by asking clients to explain in their own words what they need to know or do regarding their nutrition, exercise, or health plan.
Monitoring and Evaluating Cycle
- Conduct a baseline readiness assessment
- Develop a set of data to monitor or evaluate
- Set guidelines for collecting data and monitoring
- Set intervals for check-ins and evaluations
- Gather data and analyze results
- Evaluate results with the client
- Work together to form a plan for the next iteration