Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 1
Biological and Physiological needs: basic life needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 2
Safety Needs: protection, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 3
Belongingness and Love needs: family, affection, relationships, work group, etc.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 4
Esteem needs: achievement, status, responsibility, reputation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 5
Cognitive needs: knowledge, meaning, self-awareness
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 6
Aesthetic needs: beauty, balance, form, etc.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 7
Self-actualization: personal growth, self-fulfillment
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 8
Transcendence: helping others to self-actualize
Stages of Physical Development
INFANCY (Birth – 2 years)
INFANTS: hold heads up, roll over, reach for things, sit, crawl, begin to walk, increased coordination, manipulate objects with hands
BY AGE 2:
feed themselves with hands, jump and run awkwardly, throw a ball, pull a zipper down, make a tower of blocks
Stages of Physical Development
EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 – 6 years)
TODDLERS: love to run, hop, tumble, play, swing, jigsaw puzzles, string beads, fine motor skills begin developing
BY AGE 4: print name, eats with utensils, dress and undress self
Stages of Physical Development
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 – 10 years)
slow, steady weight gain, speed and coordination improve, begin organized sports
BY AGE 10: improved writing skills, engages in organized sports
Stages of Physical Development
ADOLESCENCE (10 – 18 years)
weight and heigh increase, girls typically begin puberty before boys
BY LATE ADOLESCENCE:
boys are typically taller and more muscular than girls of the same age, girls’ physical growth slows, boys may grow into early adulthood
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 1
SENSIORIMOTOR
- Birth to 2 years
- Babies = 5 senses and gross motor skills. Objective permeance by the end of the stage
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 2
PREOPERATIONAL
- 2 to 7 years
- Pre = Preschoolers = illogical, egocentric
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 3
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
- 7 to 11 years
- Grade Schoolers = Factual. They like concrete hands-on activities
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 4
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
- 11 years and older
- Think abstractly and use hypotheses
The Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory
- Assimilation: New information comes in and it is the same/similar to previous information. You just add to your scheme. The s in assimilation stands for the same.
- Accommodation: New information comes in and is different than previous schemes. You have to change your scheme. The c in accommodation stands for change.
MKO (Vygotsky)
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – According to Vygotsky we learn through socialization with a More Knowledgeable Other (an adult, older child, or more knowledgeable peer).
Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
Zone of Proximal Development – The just right place to teach a child. Not too hard, not too easy. They need a little support (scaffolding) from the teacher. Think of first and second grade reading groups – these groups are placing the students in their zone of proximal development.
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Scaffolding – Supporting the students in their learning. Asking leading questions, providing hints, clues, without directly giving students the answer.
3 Types of Speech (Vygotsky)
- Social Speech – When we talk to others
- Private Speech – When we talk out loud to ourselves. This occurs between ages 3-7. A child cannot speak quietly inside his/her head.
- Silent Inner Speech – When we talk inside our head. No one can hear our private inner thoughts.
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
TRUST VS. MISTRUST
(birth to 1 year) – Learning that a care giver will meet the baby’s needs
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT
(1 to 3 years) – The me do stage – Pick this choice when the child insists on doing something in the scenario.
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
(3 to 6 years) – Pick this choice when the scenario mentions exploration.
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
(6 – 12 years – grade schoolers) At this stage we want to provide positive reinforcement to students. Focus on their strengths. Help everyone to be successful.
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(12 – 18 years -middle and high schoolers) The adolescents is trying to figure out what they want to do with their lives.
Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
(20s through early 40s)- Finding a partner and friends. Having people, you can count on and not feeling alone.
Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning
- Social Learning = Social Cognitivism
- Modeling and Emulation – “Bobo Doll Experiment” – “Monkey see, Monkey do” – You watch someone model a behavior and then try and emulate (copy) it.
Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning
3 TYPES OF MODELS
3 Kinds of Models
- live – demonstrates behavior in person
- verbal – explain or describe behavior
- symbolic – books, movies, tv, video games, etc.
Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning
FOR LEARNING TO BE SUCCESSFUL
For Learning (emulation) to be successful:
- Attention- Focus, pay attention
- Retention – Remember it
- Reproduction – Be able to perform it
- Motivation – Want to copy the model
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
PRECONVENTIONAL
Preconventional- When you follow rule because there is either a punishment or reward (Instrumental Relativist). Take the PRE in Preconventional. The P stands for punishment and the re stands for reward.
Stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental orientation
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
CONVENTIONAL
When you follow the rules because that is the rule or because you do not want to be judged poorly. Picture someone wearing an “I Love Rules” shirt. “I love the rules” “I am such a good person”
Stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
POST CONVENTIONAL
When you question the rules, seek to change the rules, or knowingly break the rules because you do not agree with them. Take the ST in Post and think of stupid. This person thinks the rules are stupid, they will not follow them, and they do not care if they get caught. I will follow my own internal moral compass. Usually refers to social justice type issues.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
- Females view morality through a lens of caring for others.
- Gilligan believes there are Gender Differences in how we approach moral dilemmas
- The G in Gilligan stands for Girl Power or Gender Differences
Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
PRECONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision for myself: I love myself
Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
CONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision based on others: I love you more than I love myself
Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
POSTCONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision based on others and myself: I love myself AND I love you
Stages of Social and Emotional Development
INFANTS AND BABIES
By 2 months
Cry to get needs met
Occasionally self-soothe by sucking on hands and fingers
Start to smile and look directly at you
By 4 months
Cry in different ways to show hunger, pain, or being tired
Smile in response to caregiver’s smile
Play with toys by shaking them
By 6 months
Are more aware of which people are familiar and which are strangers
Can respond to other people’s emotions by crying, smiling, or laughing
Enjoy looking at themselves in the mirror
By 9 months
· Start to show stranger anxiety
· May cry when familiar faces aren’t around
· Start to prefer some toys over others
By 12 months
· Play favorites with familiar people
· Are more interactive (like handing over a toy or a book or making a specific noise to get a caregiver’s attention)
· Enjoy simple interactive games, like patty-cake and peekaboo
Stages of Social and Emotional Development
TODDLERS AND PRESCHOOLERS
Ages 18 months-2 years
· Have more temper tantrums and become more defiant as they try to communicate and be independent
· Start simple pretend play, like imitating what adults or other kids are doing
· Become interested in having other kids around, but are more likely to play alongside them (parallel play) than with them (cooperative play)
Ages 3-4 years
· Start to show and verbalize a wider range of emotion
· Are interested in pretend play, but may confuse real and “make believe”
· Are spontaneously kind and caring
· Start playing with other kids and separate from caregivers more easily
· May still have tantrums because of changes in routine or not getting what they want
Stages of Social and Emotional Development
GRADESCHOOLERS
Ages 5-6 years
· Enjoy playing with other kids and are more conversational and independent
· Test boundaries but are still eager to please and help out
· Begin to understand what it means to feel embarrassed
Ages 7-8 years
· Are more aware of others’ perceptions
· May complain about friendships and other kids’ reactions
· Want to behave well, but aren’t as attentive to directions
· Try to express feelings with words, but may resort to aggression when upset
Ages 9-10 years
· Share secrets and jokes with friends
· May start to develop own identity by withdrawing from family activities and conversations
· Are affectionate, silly, and curious, but can also be selfish, rude, and argumentative
Stages of Social and Emotional Development
MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOLERS
Ages 11-15 years
· Start thinking more logically
· Are introspective and moody and need privacy
· Value friends’ and others’ opinions more and more
· May test out new ideas, clothing styles, and mannerisms while figuring out where/how to fit in
Ages 16-18 years
· Strive to be independent and may start emotionally distancing from caregivers
· Start trying to discover strengths and weaknesses, at times seeming self-centered, impulsive, or moody
· Show pride in successes
· Spend a lot of time with friends and may be interested in dating
Chromsky’s Theory of Language Development
· Linguist Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that children have innate abilities to learn language.
· Chomsky terms this innate ability the “language acquisition device.”
· He believes children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction.
· Chomsky also believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,” which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share.
· Noam Chomsky the father of modern linguistics. Universal Grammar (UG) –
- Babies go through the same stages in development no matter what language they are learning
- Infants master language way faster than they should if they’re a blank slate.
Skinner’s Theory of Language Development
· B. F. Skinner, a well-known behaviorist, held that language use, like other behaviors, was conditioned or influenced by the responses you receive from others around you.
· B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other words, children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For example, a child learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so.
· This follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed was the basis of language development: (1) motivating operations that make a stimulus more or less effective, (2) discriminative stimuli that tend to evoke a specific response, (3) response to language use, and (4) reinforcing stimuli that provide positive feedback.
· Skinner also stated that children learn language through three key processes:
1 Imitating others (e.g., seeing a sibling ask for an apple and then asking for one)
2 Prompting from others (e.g., a parent might ask, “Do you want an apple?”)
3 Shaping from others (e.g., a parent might affirm and refine a child’s response: “Yes, that’s a fruit. It’s an apple. Did you want it?”) (Lumen Learning, n.d.)
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach
· Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development, including his theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), emphasizes the importance of social communication and scaffolding in helping children learn to use language.
· Vygotsky believed that language is not learned in a vacuum but depends on the interaction and communication between the learner and his or her peers.
· Psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the ZPD. The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place.
Stages of Language Development
PRE-TALKING/COOING
0-6 months
vowel like sounds
Stages of Language Development
BABBLING
6-8 months, consonant-vowel combinations
Stages of Language Development
HOLOPHRASTIC
9-18 months, one word
Stages of Language Development
TWO-WORD STAGE
18-24 months, mini sentence
Stages of Language Development
TELEGRAPHIC STAGE
24-30 months, sentences longer than two words that are structured similarly to the syntactic structures found in the sentences produced by adult grammar
Stages of Language Development
LATER MULTIWORD STAGE
30+ months, fastest increase in vocabulary, seem to understand everything said within hearing and directed to them
Intrinsic Barrier
Internal to the student, inside, within the student
Extrinsic Barrier
External to the student, outside. Resulting from student’s environment and circumstances
Atypical Barrier
Unusual
Cognition
thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding
Language
expressive and receptive abilities
Motor coordination
gross/fine motor, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing, stacking
Social interaction
initiating peer contact, group play
Adaptive
dressing, eating, washing
ELL Students: Cultural Differences and English Language Learners
- making eye contact
- speaking to adults
- taking initiative
ACCOMODATIONS: - explain concepts using models or multi-sensory materials
- facilitate vocabulary growth using pictures accompanied by verbal cues
- provide opportunities for children to demonstrate understanding through non-verbal play
- find alternate ways to help children communicate and participate until language foundations are secure
Cognitive Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance: Common Cognitive Barriers and Behaviors
· Cognitive Challenges are usually intrinsic barriers.
· Common challenges students may experience are learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), and ADHD.
Cognitive Skills are:
- Knowledge: remembering information.
- Comprehension: understanding what has been communicated.
- Application: using general concepts to solve problems.
- Analysis: breaking down information into parts to see relationships between ideas.
- Synthesis: making something new by organizing information into new relationships or patterns.
- Evaluation: deciding which methods should be used to solve problem
Behaviors Associated with Common Cognitive Development Barriers
- Difficulties with adaptive behavior or social functioning
- Short attention spans and poor listening skills
- Difficulties remembering instructions
- Difficulties understanding abstract concepts
- Difficulties with planning and time management skills
- Difficulties completing tasks on time
- Need for explicit instruction, repetition, and additional practice
Possibility signs of learning disabilities in children:
Difficulty understanding and following simple instructions
Trouble with remembering what someone just said
Fails to comprehend what he reads
Delayed speech development
Struggles to express ideas in writing
Transposes math symbols and numbers
Difficulty understanding age-appropriate jokes and sarcasm
Very messy handwriting
Significant difficulty in spelling
Difficulty grasping social conventions
Lacks coordination in walking and sports
Difficulty cutting out shapes in paper or holding a pencil
Frequently loses or misplaces personal items
Trouble comprehending conceptual time (i.e. yesterday, today, tomorrow)
Dyslexia and Dyscalculia
Traumatic Brain Injury
A brain injury may impair a student’s ability to recall information when needed, such as in testing situations, and may also experience challenges conveying their thoughts in speech and writing.
Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills.
Intellectual disabilities are diagnosed by looking at two main things:
- IQ
- Skills to live independently
Adaptive behavior
· daily living skills, such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, and feeding one’s self;
· communication skills, such as understanding what is said and being able to answer;
· social skills with peers, family members, adults, and others.
Social and Emotional Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
Some of these social and emotional developmental barriers may be external or extrinsic (caused by the student’s environment), and some may be internal or intrinsic (caused by factors within the student).
Behavioral Disorders
Behavioral disorders also known as conduct disorders are one of the most common forms of disability among children and young adults and is the most frequently cited reason for referral to mental health services.
Language Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
· As with cognitive barriers, many language barriers are characterized as intrinsic, or innate to the student, rather than being a function of environment or circumstance.
Communication Disorders
· Communication disorders involve persistent problems related to language and speech.
· Language is “the ability to encode one’s ideas into language forms and symbols,” and comprehension, “the ability to understand the meanings that others have expressed using language.” Speech refers specifically to sound produced orally.
Physical Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
The category of “physical barriers” is broad, encompassing both intrinsic or student-specific challenges (physical disabilities, hearing and vision challenges, mobility difficulties, or health conditions) and extrinsic or external barriers (poverty, lack of transportation, homelessness, or lack of sleep or nutrition)
Crystallized intelligence
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increase or stay the same as we get older. Our basic facts and vocabulary.
Fluid Intelligence
reason quickly and abstractly; decreases at get older. Our ability to problem solve and think fast.
Spearman’s general intelligence (g-factor)
Believes we have a general intelligence. You are average, above average, or below average. Pick Spearman’s General Intelligence when you see they are generalizing about the students’ intelligence. For example, since students are good at addition and subtraction the teacher believes they will be good at multiplication.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Proposes we have multiple types of intelligence. We will be average in some, above average in some, and below average in some. Pick Gardner’s Multiple Theory of Intelligence when the scenario says that the teacher is working on _ intelligence. (In the blank you will see one of Gardner’s 8 intelligences.
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence is made up 3 independent intelligences: Creative, Analytical, and Practical. Pick Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory by using Sternberg’s CAP – The scenario will say the teacher is working on the student’s Creative, Analytical, and/or Practical Intelligence.
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities Theory
Intelligence comes from seven independent factors that he called primary abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed
Know that like Gardner he has a multiple intelligence theory.
Classical Conditioning
A neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response. This one goes with Pavlov’s Dogs
Operant Conditioning
A response is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. This one goes with B. F. Skinner.
The instructional strategy used by Skinner/operant conditioning/behaviorism is:
direct instruction. Think of direct instruction as a lecture. A teacher lectures at a board and then gives you practice.
Information Processing Theory
Your brain is like a computer. Information goes in and information comes out.
The instructional strategies used by the information processing theory are:
- Trivia and jeopardy style games
- Attention-getting devices – Dressing-up for students, telling a funny story, using a visual/picture, underlining, highlighting, color coding
- Mnemonic devices
- Concept Maps
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
This theory goes with Bandura from Module 3. The Social Cognitivist believe something is modeled and one tries to emulate (copy) it. The “Monkey see, monkey do” theory.
Self-efficacy
is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or of reaching a specific goal. Self-efficacy is very important to the social cognitivists. According to them, I should not allow you to take a test unless you have high self-efficacy about your ability to pass.
The instructional strategies used by the social cognitive theory are:
-Modeling/Emulation
- Reciprocal Teaching – The teacher teaches a student and then the student teaches a buddy
- Reciprocal Questioning – The students ask the teacher questions and then the teacher asks the students questions.
Humanistic Learning Theory
The Humanitistic Learning Theory focuses on the whole child/whole human. This thoery is focused on how the child feels. This theory goes with Maslow from Module 1. They believe people have free will and are basically good.
The instructional strategies used by the humanistic learning theory are:
- Breaks (Snack breaks, water breaks, wiggle breaks, recess)
- Choices (For example: Choose your book, choose your center, etc.)
- Explaining to students why they are learning something
- Checking-in with students
Intrinsic motivation
is motivation that is based on internal factors like what you like to do and things that make you happy. The “in” in intrinsic stands for “inside you.” You do it because you want to. For example: learning to bake a cake, read a book, or learning to build a car because you just want to.
Extrinsic motivation
is motivation that is based on external factors like money, rewards, obligations, or approval. The ex in extrinsic stands for “exit” It is outside of you. For example: reading a book for a pizza coupon, passing this course so you can eventually get your diploma, etc.
Growth Mindset
is believing that intelligence is not fixed. The belief that everyone is capable of learning.
Constructivist Learning Theory
The Constructivist Learning Theory is the builders. They believe learners are constatnly building on their previous knowledge. Learners are not passive recipients of information. They are active in the learning process. Learning is an interactive experience. This theory goes with Piaget and Vygotsky from Module 2.
Cognitive Constructivism
goes with Piaget – We learn through experience. We learn by doing, seeing, touching, experiencing things. Real-world experiences and hands-on learning is important.
Social Constructivism
goes with Vygotsky – We learn through expereinces with more knowledgeable others (an adult, older child, more knowledgable peer). Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development, mulitiple viewpoints, and cooperative/collaborative groups are important.
The instructional strategies used by the constructivist learning theory are:
- Multiple Viewpoints – Hearing others’ opinions. For example, a book discussion. Or multiple viewpoints can be looking at things from many sides. For example, looking at a bill in Congress from a Democrat’s side and from a Republican’s side.
- Scaffolding (asking leading questions/providing support) in the Zone of Proximal Development (the just right place to teach a student)
- Real- World/Authentic/Interactive Learning
- Project-based learning – This typically has students use multiple subjects to do a project.
- Inquiry-based learning – seek resolutions to questions and issues while you construct new knowledge. “Inquiry” is defined as “a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge — seeking information by questioning.” Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
- Spiral Curriculum – Ideas should be reintroduced at different stages and levels. Reintroducing concepts already learned in a “spiral” format helps students to reach a deeper level of understanding.
- Cooperative/Collaborative Learning
Cooperative Learning
The focus is on the product more than the process.
Students of mixed abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups on a structured activity.
Instruction is teacher-led.
Collaborative Learning
The focus is on the process more than the product.
Students of similar abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups to explore a significant question.
Instruction is student-led.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 1
Remembering – Memorizing information. For example: addition facts, knowing the fifty states, knowing a date in history
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 2
Understanding – Restate in own words. Comprehension and paraphrasing. For example: What happened at the beginning of a story, explain a science concept in your own words.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 3
Applying – Use it to solve problems never seen before. Answer questions never heard before. For example: Using your math facts to solve a word problem
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 4
Analyzing – Break down a concept into components. Compare and contrast or pros and cons. For example: Listing the pros and cons to a recycling program.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 5
Evaluating – Look at two ideas and determine if one is more effective than the other. Making a judgement. For example: What do you believe? Should we have a recycling program? Why or why not?
Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 6
Creating – Come up with your own ideas and theories. When you make something new. For example: a research paper, a speech, etc.
Diagnostic Assessments
Given at the beginning of a unit. Before teaching takes place. It is either to decide where to start a lesson or who gets into a special program. This is usually not graded.
Formative Assessments
Does NOT usually go in the grade book. It is used to check if students are understanding and for your lesson plans. Examples include, asking questions, homework, worksheets, and activities.
Summative Assessments
This goes in your grade book. Examples include, finals, chapter tests, unit tests, etc. Two types of summative assessments: Written assessments and performance assessment
Written Response Assessments or Written Assessments or Written Tests
This is when we give students a specific amount of time to answer questions and they cannot use any notes. There are 3 types of written tests:
- Selected Response – Multiple choice, True/False, and Fill-in-the-blank. These are the most efficient type of assessment. They are fairly easy to create and can be quickly graded with an answer key.
- Short Answer – The student answers a prompt in 2-3 sentences
- Essays – The student answers a prompt in several paragraphs to several pages
Authentic or Performance or Performance-based or Alternative Assessments
This is when we give students time to work on something and expect them to use resources. There are many types of performance assessments. These types of assessments are typically more complex than written assessments. Some examples include:
- Direct Writing Assessment – A research paper
- Exhibition Assessment – Anything you can display outside your classroom. For example, paintings, photos, tri-fold boards
- Demonstration Assessment – Anything you see the student physically do. For example: A speech, a mock trial, play an instrument, sing, a science experiment, throw a ball, push-ups, etc.
- Portfolios – This shows growth over time. We take work from the beginning of a unit, middle of the unit, and the end of the unit to see student progress. Writing portfolios are the most commonly used.
Norm-referenced Assessments
This is when we compare students. Norming = comparing. In a classroom, it is when we grade on a curve. For example, the top two scores get an A. When you are normed or norm-referenced it only tells me how you are compared. I cannot tell anything about the individual. Norm-referenced is used most often in standardized tests. The test is given to a norm (sample) group. You then receive a percentile rank. For example, you are in the 83 percentile. This does NOT mean you scored 83% out of 100%. This means you scored the same as or better than 83% of the people in the norm group. All norm-referencing can tell me is are you norm (average), above the norm (above average), or below the norm (below average).
Criterion-referenced Assessments
This is how we are used to being graded. You get what you get and that is what you earned. If you score 83% it means you correctly answered 83% of the questions out of 100%. With criterion-referenced assessments I can see your strengths and weaknesses. I can see what you have mastered. I can see your individual progress.
Standardized Tests
are standard – from the questions themselves, to the length of time students have to complete it (although some exceptions may be made for students with learning or physical disabilities), to the time of year in which the test is taken.
Objective Assessments
The “O” in Objective stands for one right answer. Everyone in the class puts the exact same answer. Objective assessments are multiple choice, true/false, and fill-in the blank. For example, on a multiple-choice test everyone must select C to be correct. If you select any other answer you are wrong. On a true /false test, everyone who put false was marked correct, every one who put true was marked wrong. On a fill-in the blank question of “What is 3+2?” Everyone must answer 5 or they are wrong.
Subjective Assessments
The “S” in Subjective stands for squishy. It is not exact. Everyone puts a slightly different answer and the evaluator has leeway or squishiness in how they grade you. This is how essays, papers, and projects are graded. There is typically a rubric that is used, but even with a rubric every evaluator may grade something slightly differently. Your performance assessments at WGU are subjective assessments. Have you ever looked at a rubric for a performance assessment and thought you had perfectly answered the question only to be told by evaluation you must revise it? That is a subjective assessment.
Competency-based Learning
This is where you allow students to work towards mastery. If a student does not do well on a test, paper, project, etc. You reteach the student and assess them until they are competent (they pass). Competency based learning is used at WGU.
Competency-based Assessment
Usually allows students to choose from a variety of assessments to demonstrate their mastery of the material. This transfers learning from the teacher to the student. If students do not do well, they are retaught and attempt to show their mastery again.
Rubrics
Used for Performance Assessments and Essay Tests – This is a guideline for the criteria you are looking for on something you are grading.
Behaviorist Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategy used by Skinner/operant conditioning/behaviorism is direct instruction. Think of direct instruction as a lecture. A teacher lectures at a board and then gives you practice. The most common type of practice is a worksheet. The teacher than gives you feedback on how you did on your practice. If you do not learn the concept you will have more instruction and practice.
Direct instruction works best when teaching the basic skills of reading, writing, and math.
Information Processing Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the information processing theory are
- Trivia and jeopardy style games
- Attention-getting devices – Dressing-up for students, telling a funny story, using a visual/picture, underlining, highlighting, color coding
- Mnemonic devices
- Concept Maps
Social Cognitive Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the social cognitive theory are
- Modeling/Emulation
- Reciprocal Teaching – The teacher teaches a student and then the student teaches a buddy
- Reciprocal Questioning – The students ask the teacher questions and then the teacher asks the students questions.
Humanistic Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the humanistic learning theory are
- Breaks (Snack breaks, water breaks, wiggle breaks, recess)
- Choices (For example: Choose your book, choose your center, etc.)
- Explaining to students why they are learning something
- Checking-in with students
Constructivist Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the constructivist learning theory are
- Multiple Viewpoints – Hearing others’ opinions. For example, a book discussion. Or multiple viewpoints can be looking at things from many sides. For example, looking at a bill in Congress from a Democrat’s side and from a Republican’s side.
- Scaffolding (asking leading questions/providing support) in the Zone of Proximal Development (the just right place to teach a student)
- Real- World/Authentic/Interactive Learning
- Project-based learning – This typically has students use multiple subjects to do a project.
- Inquiry-based learning – seek resolutions to questions and issues while you construct new knowledge. “Inquiry” is defined as “a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge — seeking information by questioning.” Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
- Spiral Curriculum – Ideas should be reintroduced at different stages and levels. Reintroducing concepts already learned in a “spiral” format helps students to reach a deeper level of understanding.
- Cooperative/Collaborative Learning
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
from birth to 2 years, motor activity
Pre-operational Stage (Piaget)
from 2 years to 7 years, development of language, memory, and imagination (symbolically)
Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
from 7 years to 11 years, logical thinking
Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
adolescence to adulthood, abstract thoughts
Physical Development
a developmental process that refers to the physical growth of a person’s body
Cognitive Development
the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Piaget’s Theory
Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s Theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Erikson’s Theory
Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Trust versus Mistrust
(Erikson)
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Erikson)
Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.
Initiative versus Guilt (Erikson)
Pre-school children initiating activities and asserting control.
Industry versus Inferiority (Erikson)
The fourth of Erikson’s eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.
Identity versus Role Confusion (Erikson)
Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “who am I?” but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt
Intimacy versus Isolation (Erikson)
Erikson’s sixth stage of development. Adults see someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound aloneness and isolation.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Holds that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).
Preconventional
Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking
Conventional
Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
Postconventional
Right and wrong determined by society’s rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute or by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice
Gilligan’s Theory
The theory suggesting that there is a different process of moral development in women than in men.
Chomsky’s Theory
Children have an inborn ability to learn language through exposure to it, not being taught it.
Skinner’s Theory
Theory proposed that we learn language through association, imitation and reinforcement
Vygotsky’s language theory
Social learning
Language Development
the process by which children come to understand and communicate language during early childhood
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher (scaffolding)
Intelligence Theories
varying ways that psychologists conceptualize what is meant to be “smart”
Behaviorist Theory
Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment.
Cognitivist Theory
A research approach that emphasizes how the human mind receives, processes, stores, and retrieves information in learning and retrieving information.
Humanistic Theory
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth
cooperative learning
small groups of classmates work toward common goals
collaborative learning
Learning that takes place when students work in groups to discuss and solve problems together.
Constructivist Theory
Piaget’s theory, in which cognitive development results from children’s active construction of reality, based on their experiences with the world