Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Erikson)
Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Holds that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development
Behaviorist Theory
Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment.
Chomsky’s Theory
Children have an inborn ability to learn language through exposure to it, not being taught it.
Cognitive Development
the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Cognitivist Theory
A research approach that emphasizes how the human mind receives, processes, stores, and retrieves information in learning and retrieving information.
collaborative learning
Learning that takes place when students work in groups to discuss and solve problems together.
Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)
from 7 years to 11 years, logical thinking
Constructivist Theory
Piaget’s theory, in which cognitive development results from children’s active construction of reality, based on their experiences with the world
Conventional
Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
cooperative learning
small groups of classmates work toward common goals
Erikson’s Theory
Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)
adolescence to adulthood, abstract thoughts
Gilligan’s Theory
The theory suggesting that there is a different process of moral development in women than in men.
Humanistic Theory
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth
Identity versus Role Confusion (Erikson)
Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “who am I?” but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt
Industry versus Inferiority (Erikson)
The fourth of Erikson’s eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.
Initiative versus Guilt (Erikson)
Pre-school children initiating activities and asserting control.
Intelligence Theories
varying ways that psychologists conceptualize what is meant to be “smart”
Intimacy versus Isolation (Erikson)
Erikson’s sixth stage of development. Adults see someone with whom to share their lives in an enduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound aloneness and isolation.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).
Language Development
the process by which children come to understand and communicate language during early childhood
Physical Development
a developmental process that refers to the physical growth of a person’s body
Piaget’s Theory
Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
Postconventional
Right and wrong determined by society’s rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute or by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice
Preconventional
Kohlberg’s stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking
Pre-operational Stage (Piaget)
from 2 years to 7 years, development of language, memory, and imagination (symbolically)
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
from birth to 2 years, motor activity
Skinner’s Theory
Theory proposed that we learn language through association, imitation and reinforcement
Trust versus Mistrust
(Erikson)
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met
Vygotsky’s language theory
Social learning
Vygotsky’s Theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher (scaffolding)
According to Bandura, which factor can affect reproduction?
Physical capabilities
According to B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning, what is an example of negative reinforcement?
Removing a restriction if a student pays attention in class
According to Kohlberg, which behavior is characteristic of the final stage of his moral development theory?
Justifying a moral decision on the basis of self-chose principles even when there is a conflict with official rules and laws
According to Piaget, what is an important accomplishment at the preoperational stage?
Thinking symbolically
According to Vygotsky’s theory, which child is experiencing learning from “a more knowledgeable other?”
A child watching parents brush their teeth
According to Vygotsky, what should a teacher do to help a student move through the zone of proximal development?
Provide instructional scaffolding
An Asian third-grade student is getting average grades in math and English. However, when asked to participate in discussions, the student does not make eye contact and is silent for long periods of time. Which factor is likely affecting this student’s learning and performance?
Different cultural norms
At which developmental stage would a child be expected to tie shoes?
Primary school
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
- Toddlers
- Need for independence
- Me do stage
- Insist on doing things on own
Because of circumstances, an individual seeks medical advice to remove a parent from life support. According to Gilligan, which moral stage of development is represented by this scenario?
Postconventional
Behavioral
- Teacher directed
- Basic skills/mastery
- Behavior modification
- Direct Instruction
** Overview, present info, structured, guided, individual practice - Immediate feedback & correction
- Reinforcement
** positive, negative - Fixed/Variable
- Interval/Ratio
- Punishment
** Time-out - Shaping
- Contingency contracting, Premack Principle
- Token economy
- Computer-based Tutorials
Chomsky
Theory of Universal Grammar – Innate/Biological
Chomsky – Babbling
- 6-8 months
- Consonant-vowel combinations (ba-ba, ma-ma, da-da, na-na)
Chomsky – Holophrastic
- 9-18 months
- Single words represent a sentence (Up, juice, mine)
Chomsky – Later multiword
- 30+ months
- 5+ word sentences, fastest vocabulary increase. Sentences formed with improving grammar, structure, and communicative intent and function
Chomsky – Telegraphic
- 24-30 months
- Vocabulary increases. Use mostly nouns and verbs, omit auxiliary words (Carrie want ball, I good boy today, What her name?)
- Early multiword stage
Chomsky – Two-word
- 18-24 months
- Mini sentences (Doggy bark, Me play, Go bye-bye)
Classroom Assessment: How to Assess
- Written Assessment
** Selected-Response
** Constructed-Response - Performance Assessment
Classroom Assessment: How to Score or Report Results
- Norm-Referenced Grading
- Criterion-Referenced Grading
Classroom Assessment: When to assess
- Formative Assessment
- Summative Assessment
A class with some students who have a visual impairment is learning about lizards. Which technique can the teacher use to help these students understand the lesson?
Have the students feel the skin of a lizard
Concrete Operational Stage
(Elementary)
- Logical thought
- Need concrete, hands-on, experience
- Mental reversal
- Seriation
- Sorting
- Classifying
- Conservation
Constructivist
- Student-centered
- Building knowledge
- Lego Builders
- Student constructs own knowledge and meaning from experiences
** build schema - Student active learner, takes charge of own learning
- Real world, authentic learning
- Multiple viewpoints, learn from others
- Scaffolding/ZPD
** leading questions - Discovery learning
- Situated learning
- Project-based learning
- Virtual learning, simulations
Conventional
- All about rules or laws
- Rules are set and unchangeable, black and white view of rules
- Respect authority or policy
- Be good citizen or student
- Maintain social conventions, social order
Cooperative/Collaborative
- Learning together
- Social butterflies
- Cooperative learning
** Working together, interacting - Heterogeneous groups
** Mixed groups - Positive interdependence
** Group goals - Promotive interaction
** Encourage each other - Individual accountability
- Equal opportunity for success
- Competition
** between groups or teams - Model social behaviors
Criterion-Referenced Grading
- Based on standards or set criteria
- Pass based on mastery or proficiency
** like your OA - Reports information about strengths and weaknesses
** like your coaching report
Due to family circumstances, a high-performing student suffers from inadequate sleep. Which learning and performance impact would be consistent with the student in this scenario?
Decreased ability to focus
During which age range does Erikson’s industry vs. inferiority stage of psychosocial development usually occur?
5 to 12 years
An eight -year-old student diagnosed with cerebral palsy is working at grade level academically but is unable to write, climb a jungle gym, or participate in any extra curricular activities. In which area of development is this student struggling?
Physical
Erikson – Psychosocial (8 Stages of Identity Development)
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
4.Industry vs. Inferiority - Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
Even in the heat, a somewhat withdrawn student wears long sleeves and pants. As a victim of abuse, this student fears being required to have anything signed by a parent. How does child abuse influence learning and performance?
It increases self-isolation and the fear of reprimand.
An extremely intelligent middle school student does not complete work, is suspicious of those who want to be friendly, and is very judgmental of others. A teacher hears the student speak about hating the school and refers the student to the guidance counselor for poor self-esteem. How does poor self-esteem affect learning and performance?
It decreases the willingness to take risks
A fifth-grade student is having difficulty listening and retaining information. The teacher notices that the student looks pale and has brittle hair and nails. Which physical barrier is likely affecting this student’s learning and performance?
Nutrition
A first-grade teacher wants to assess student comprehension on the life cycle of a butterfly. There are three English learners in the classroom. Which formative assessment activity is likely to benefit these students?
Labeling real-life photographs of the different stages of the butterfly life cycle
Formal Operational Stage
(Middle school/High school)
- Abstract thought
- Higher order thinking & reasoning
- Mental manipulations
- Systematic problem-solving, critical thinking
- Hypothesize
- Predict
Formative Assessment
- Check FOR Learning
- Focus is on learning progress
- Occurs during instruction
- Provides feedback to determine student learning
- Provides feedback to inform instruction and reteaching
A fourth-grade student complains of headaches, stomach pain, and nausea. The teacher notices the student seems anxious and has difficulty focusing. Based on the information, which barrier is likely affecting this student’s learning and performance?
Stress
A fourth-grade student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is inattentive, is disruptive, and has difficulty completing assingments. How can the teacher address this student’s learning needs?
Give several choices for completing an activity
Gardner Intelligence Theory
Multiple Intelligences
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
- Logical-Mathematical
** numerical patterns, critical thinking - Verbal-Linguistic
** spoken and written word smart - Musical
** rhythm, pitch, tones - Spatial
** Good with maps, charts, graphs, puzzles, 3-D rotations - Bodily-Kinesthetic
** body control, movement, athletic - Interpersonal
** People smart, communication skills - Intrapersonal
** Self-smart, self-aware - Naturalist
** nature and environment smart
A high school teacher notices a sudden drop in a student’s grades and a change in the way the student dresses for school. Which developmental barrier is likely affecting this student’s performance?
Peer pressure
A high school teacher promotes the development of self-efficacy in students based on the social cognitive learning theory. One student, when assigned a history project, exhibits stress, becomes overwhelmed, and verbalizes that the task is too difficult. Which strategy aligns best with this scenario?
Modify the project to promote successful completion by the student
How does female growth differ than male growth during the adolescent stage?
Females usually complete physical growth before males
Humanistic
- Feelings, Emotions, Self-perception, motivation
- Deficiency needs
** physical, safety, physiological, give breaks - safe, welcoming environment
- Clear expectations, respect, courtesy
- growth needs
- self-esteem, self-concept
- student choice
- promote interest and engagement
- fun, exciting, creative learning
Identity vs. Role Confusion
- Adolescents
- Develop sense of self
- Influenced by other’s reactions
- Peers important
- Social role models important
In a fifth-grade classroom, 75% of the students are from low socioeconomic backgrounds and are reading below grade level. At the end of the chapter about photosynthesis, the teacher decides to assess students on the concepts presented. Which summative assessment strategy would be appropriate in this scenario?
Providing alternative performance tasks for students to demonstrate knowledge
Industry vs. Inferiority
- Elementary
- Intellectual curiosity
- School performance
- Need positive reinforcement
- Praise
- Avoid undue competition or criticism
Information-Processing
- with Social Cognitive collectively called “cognitivism”
- Memory
- Metacognitive knowledge
** Meaningful learning - Sensory register
- STM (working memory)
- LTM
- Maintenance Rehearsal
** Rote rehearsal, Repetition (STM) - Elaborative Rehearsal, Encoding
** paraphrase, summarize, work with material a ton - Attention getting devices
** costumes, underline, highlight, color code, visuals
** Mnemonic devices
*** ROYGBIV = colors of the Rainbow - Chunking
- Concept mapping
- Distributed practice
Initiative vs. Guilt
- Preschool/Kinder
- Exploration
- Asking lots of questions
- Trying new things on own
Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Young adults
- Best friends and soulmates
- Developing relationships
- Sense of self
Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
- Preconventional
- Conventional
- Postconventional
The language and cultural barrier of a middle school-aged English learner (EL) from a socialist country causes the student to struggle in an U.S. history class. The student has difficulty with abstract social science concepts and terminology. Which approach would address the learning needs of this student?
Provide concrete examples to clarify difficult vocabulary and ideas
Norm-Referenced Grading
- Based on a “normed” scored
- Compares students’ scores to each other
- Grading on a curve, bell curve
- Reports as a percentage of how well you did compared to how well you could have done
Physical Development: Adolescence: 10-18 Years
- Girls begin puberty earlier
- Boys grow taller
- Boys more muscular
- Girls’ physical growth slows
- Boys physical growth continues
- Reach sexual maturity
Physical Development: By Age 2
- Feed themselves with hands
- Jump & run awkwardly
- Throw ball
- Use zipper
- Make tower of blocks
Physical Development: By Age 4
- Print name
- Dress and undress self
- Eat with utensils
Physical Development: Infants
- Hold up heads
- Roll over
- Reach for things
- Sit
- Crawl
- Begin to Walk
- Increased coordination
- Manipulate objects with hands
Physical Development: Middle Childhood: 6-10 Years
- Slow, steady weight gain
- Speed and coordination improve
- Begin organized sports
- Refinement of fine motor skills
- Improved handwriting
- Drawings more representational
Physical Development: Toddlers
*Love to run
- Hop
- Tumble
- Play
- Swing
- Fine motor skills developing
- Can string beads
- Do jigsaw puzzles
Piaget
- scheme, schema
- adaptation
- assimilation, disequilibrium, equilibrium, & accommodation
- Learn from interaction with peers and environment
Piaget Stages
- Sensorimotor Stage
- Preoperational Stage
- Concrete Operational Stage
- Formal Operational Stage
Postconventional
- All about others
- Rules or laws are flexible depending on context or situation
- Obeys laws for the good of society
- Considers people’s reasons for breaking rules or laws before judging or punishing
- May break rules or laws to protect others or to protect rights
Preconventional
- All about me
- Doesn’t understand concept of rules, just follows
- Avoid punishment, stay out of trouble
- Receive reward, privileges, favors
- Being obedient
Preoperational Stage
(Preschool/Kinder)
- Prelogical thought
- Play and pretend
- Language develops
- Forms many new schemes
- Egocentrism
** all about me - Centration
** focus on only one aspect at a time
A second-grade student is argumentative and defiant and engages in passive-aggressive behaviors such as giving a peer a hug or high five that causes pain. The teacher notices the student bullying other students on the playground. In which area of development is this student struggling?
Social-emotional
Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth – 2 years)
- Learn through movement and senses
- Reflexive or active
- Sucking
- Grabbing
- Looking
- Listening
*Object permanence
** unseen things still exist
A sixth-grade student, who is being bullied, is afraid to go to recess and walk home after school. Which effect on learning and performance might this student experience?
A decrease in self-complacency
Skinner Language Development
Operant Conditioning and Language Development
Skinner Operant Conditioning and Language Development
- Children learn language based on reinforcement
- Learn language through imitating, prompting, shaping
- Associating words with meanings
- Correct utterances are positively reinforced
Social Cognitive
- with information-processing collectively called “cognitivism”
- Teaching/developing self
- Metacognitive skills
- Meaningful learning
- Self-regulation, self-control, self-efficacy
- Modeling
- Emulate
** imitate - Reciprocal teaching
- Autonomous learning
Spearman Intelligence Theory
General Intelligence
Spearman’s General Intelligence
- General (g factor)
** overall intellectual ability - Specific (s factor)
** specific intellectual ability - Smart across the board
Sternberg Intelligence Theory
Successful Intelligence
Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence
- Triarchic view
** Three types of intelligence - Creative
** come up with new ideas - Analytical
** critical thinking - Practical
** apply knowledge and skills appropriately
A student in high school is and English learner (EL) who is operating at the formal operational stage of development. Which classroom activity would address this student’s learning needs?
Solving hypothetical problems
A student is able to make a sentences with a subject, verb, and object. Which stage of language development is this student in?
Telegraphic
A student understands that a deflated balloon can be inflated with air. According to Piaget, which cognitive level is this student demonstrating?
Concrete operational
A student who is oversensitive to stimuli has difficulty following multistep directions, frequently asks for information to be repeated, and is easily distracted from assigned tasks. What are the learning needs of a student with this type of sensory processing disorder?
Reduction of distractions
Summative Assessment
- Sum OF Learning
- Focus is on outcome of learning or result
- Occurs after instruction
- Provides grades
- Measures overall student achievement
Taking a constructivist approach, a history teacher encourages students to choose an activity that will facilitate an in-depth understanding of how the United States was founded. Which instructional strategy will align with this scenario?
Role-playing
A teacher has a class that includes a student with expressive language disorder. The teacher wants to assess if students can distinguish between nouns and verbs. Which formative assessment strategy supports the learning needs of this student?
Sorting images of verbs and nouns into given categories
A teacher has a large group of students to assess. The teachers wants to accurately assess the knowledge students have in a fairly short amount of time. Which type of assessment should this teacher use?
Short answer
A teacher wants students to understand how knowledge is processed by teaching metacognitive skills to overcome memory deficits. Which teaching strategy should this teacher use?
Teaching how to use mnemonic devices or acronyms to recall information
A teacher wants to know how students apply the things they learned over time and in different ways. Which type of assessment should this teacher use?
Portfolio performance
A teacher wants to understand students’ mastery of a concept and wants some subjectivity in grading. How should the teacher assess in this scenario?
Have students complete a constructed-response questions
A teacher, who takes the humanistic approach to learning, personalizes learning environments for students, capitalizing or intrinsic motivation. Which strategy aligns with this scenario?
Providing opportunities to explore with the enviornment
Thurnstone Intelligence Theory
7 factor intelligence
Thurnstone’s 7 factor intelligence
- Still suggested a general factor
- Book smarts
- Scores vary together
Trust vs. Mistrust
- Babies
- Provide love, care, food
- Need comfort and safety
Two seven-year-old non-English-speaking students learn English by listening to read-alouds and singing songs. After nine weeks of school, the ability to retell a story must be assessed. Which summative assessment strategy would be an appropriate option for these two students?
Provide pictures for students to order while retelling the story
An underweight middle school student is seen negotiating for food from other students. This student regularly falls asleep in class, complains of headaches, and is unfocused and unmotivated. Based on this description, which area of development of this student should be addressed?
Physical needs
Vygotsky
- Scaffolding
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- More knowledgeable other (MKO)
- Using language (as a mediator)
** explaining, giving examples, asking leading questions - Social & Cultural interactions important
Vygotsky Language Development
Social Approach to Language Development
Vygotsky Social Approach to Language Development
- Language develops through social interactions
- Children need interpersonal interactions
- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
- Scaffolding (temporary support)
- Private speech (talking to yourself)
Vygotsky Stages
- No specific stages
- Support learning from lower level to higher level and more complex knowledge and skills at all ages
What is a key concept of B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning in behavioral theory?
Good behavior can be encouraged by continual positive reinforcement.
What is a key concept of the humanistic theory of learning?
People are innately good.
What is identified with the babbling stage of the language development process?
Repeating vowel sounds
What is one reason a school would use a criterion-referenced reading assessment?
To assess whether students have mastered a particular national reading standard
What key concept is associated with the constructivism theory of learning?
Interactive experiences
Which action characterizes the holophrastic stage of language development?
Uttering single words
Which behavior would Piaget classify as characteristic of the concrete operational cognitive development stage?
Explaining the commutative property in addition
Which characteristic is consistent with a student in the early childhood physical development stage?
Ties shoelaces
Which characteristic is consistent with a student in the middle childhood physical development stage?
Refining of motor coordination
Which theoretical learning approach aligns to playing trivia games to review class material?
Information processing theory
While solving a multistep math problem, a student forgets the second and third steps while implementing the first. During reading, the student often forgets what was at the beginning of the paragraph before reaching the end of a paragraph. Which memory deficit is likely affecting this student’s learning and performance?
Working memory