WGU D265 – WGU – Critical Thinking – Reason and Evidence Already Graded A+

PROPOSITIONS
Are statements that can be true or false

NON-PROPOSITONS
Are sentences that are not statements about matters of fact or fiction. They do not make a claim that can be true or false.

SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS
Have no internal logic structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether a part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. (Example: Harry Potter wears glasses. The sky is blue.)

COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS
Have internal logic structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. (Example: The sky is blue, but it does not look blue to me right now. The cat ate the food, but he did not like it. The GDP of Canada is either $3 trillion or $12 trillion.)

Words used to identify Independent Propositions
AND, OR, EITHER, BUT, IF, THEN.

CONCLUSION INDICATORS
THEREFORE, SO, IT FOLLOWS THAT, HENCE, THUS, ENTAILS THAT, WE MAY CONCLUDE THAT, IMPLIES THAT, WHEREFORE, AND AS A RESULT.

PREMISE INDICATORS
BECAUSE, FOR, GIVEN THAT, AS, SINCE, AS INDICATED BY.

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
Arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion.
-mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition.

INDUCTION ARGUMENTS
Arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable.
-analogies, authority, causal inferences, extrapolations, etc.

INFERENCE TO THE BEST EXPLANATION OR ABDUCTION
Arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation.

FORMAL FALLACY
Concerns the structure of an argument

INFORMAL FALLACY
Concerns the informational content of an argument

A FORMAL FALLACY IS A TYPE OF
Bad Argument Structure

Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified

Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source?
Who funded it? & Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?

While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not.
What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?
It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.

In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?
Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.

PRINCIPLE OF CHARITY
The principle of charity suggests we should try to understand ideas before criticizing them.

Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity?
It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.

Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author’s claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author’s claims about the disadvantages of technology.
Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?
Confirmation Bias

CONFIRMATION BIAS
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories.

COGNITIVE BIAS
a systematic thought process caused by the tendency of the human brain to simplify information processing through a filter of personal experience and preferences.

HEURISTICS
are practical rules of thumb that manifest as mental shortcuts in judgment and decision-making.

Which sentence reflects strong critical thinking?
“In any event, our purpose is to better understand the relevant issues so that we may make an informed decision on the topic.”

Since inflation is rising rapidly, and because we are approaching the point at which reversal is not possible, it follows that we need to institute a new economic policy, and we need to act quickly.Which two statements contain premises of the given argument?
We are approaching the point at which reversal is not possible. & Inflation is rising rapidly.

“Products manufactured in our country are the best because we make the best automobiles,” declared Kennedy. Which two descriptors best characterize Kennedy’s comments?
An inference & A weak argument & A proposition

Which two sentences are propositions?
Lending helps stimulate capital investment. & A strong economy is vital to national security.

I have grown bored since last week. Which descriptor accurately characterizes this sentence?
Proposition

People should pay their taxes since paying taxes is the right thing to do. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question

One should not speed because speeding is wrong.Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question

My opponent argues that kangaroos can hop because hopping is something that kangaroos are able to do. Since my opponent has committed the fallacy of begging the question, one must infer that their conclusion is false, and that kangaroos cannot hop. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
The fallacy fallacy

If Bo is kind, then Bo is wealthy. Bo is wealthy. Therefore, Bo is kind. This is an example of which type of logic error?
Affirming the consequent

Which type of logic error is the following argument an example of? “My opponents argue that all giraffes have long necks because anyone who disagrees is a fool. Since my opponents are guilty of the ad hominem fallacy, we must infer that their conclusion is false, and that giraffes do not have long necks.”
The fallacy fallacy

Usually when home team fans come out smiling and celebrating at the conclusion of a match, that means the home team won. At the conclusion of the match, many home team fans came out smiling and celebrating. I, therefore, concluded that the home team won. Which term describes this argument?
Inductive

I have seen the sun rise every day for many years. I, therefore, conclude that the sun will rise again tomorrow. Which term describes this argument?
Cogent

All bears are wild. Smokey is a bear. Therefore, Smokey is wild. Which term describes the argument?
Deductive

Which statement is accurate regarding bias in information sources?
All sources have bias, but some are more credible than others.

A news outlet issues a correction and an apology for incorrect information it published. In the absence of further information, what does this news outlet’s action suggest about its credibility?
The source appears credible because it is concerned with accuracy.

Which two characterizations are most accurate regarding the credibility of information sources?
The credibility of sources spans a spectrum. & Sources may lack credibility for a variety of reasons.

Why is identifying the author essential in determining a source’s credibility?
It helps to determine if the author has relevant expertise.

What is a logical step for critical thinkers to take if they are uncertain about the reliability of a source?
Verify the reliability of a source by cross-referencing with additional source materials.

Which statement represents a logical reaction to a source claiming to be free from bias?
“This can’t be true because all sources contain bias.”

How could podcasts, newscasts, and talk radio be less biased?
By featuring experts who offer contrary viewpoints

What are two ways in which the internet has complicated a critical thinking approach to finding reliable sources?
Sources are more easily located yet not consistently credible. & Sources are more easily located but still need to be verified.

Which factor should people focus on when evaluating internet-based information sources for credibility?
Content

Why should people read other articles published by the same source when they locate an article of interest on the internet?
To determine whether the source publishes sensationalized or overtly biased stories

A person encounters an internet source with a headline of “This is NOT a hoax!” Which conclusion would be reasonable for this person to make?
The content is sensationalized.

For which two reasons do critical thinkers follow the principle of charity?
To discover the truth & To present a more convincing argument

Which two descriptions accurately characterize the nature of human beliefs?
Subject to bias & Sometimes irrational

Why can heuristics be advantageous?
They enable individuals to make quick decisions.

An individual read a report that professional athletes spend an average of thirty hours per week exercising at the gym. Based on this report, the individual concludes that people who belong to a gym spend an average of thirty hours per week exercising. Which concept does this conclusion illustrate?
Selection bias & Anchoring

Quinn favors strict industry regulations. Robin disagrees because they would increase costs for many businesses and stifle the economy. Robin does, however, understand and acknowledge that industrial operations have environmental and social impacts and that regulatory measures may help prevent unnecessary harm. Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?
The principle of charity & Heuristics

Which argumentation concept does the following passage illustrate? “Some people point to the large number of unidentified flying object sightings and the discovery of many earth-like planets in the universe as evidence of extraterrestrial life. I don’t take this evidence seriously, though, because I do not believe in extraterrestrial life.”
Confirmation bias

A person is buying a car. The car salesperson initially quotes a base price. The buyer relies on this initial quote to make a purchasing decision despite the subsequent addition of options that significantly increase the final price. Which cognitive bias is the buyer exhibiting?
Anchoring and adjustment

A university student surveys incoming freshmen to understand how students at the university feel about a proposed tuition increase. Which statements are true regarding this statistical sample?
It is not representative. & It is not random.

Alex notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media posts, and other information she sees on the internet reinforce her belief that the government is conspiring against her. Based on this information, which conclusion can Alex reasonably have regarding her view on the issue?
Her suspicion is correct. & She cannot conclude anything.

Why do strong critical thinkers monitor their own biases?
To minimize their biases & To understand how their biases influence their thinking

A person notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media posts, and other information he sees on the internet mirror his personal likes and dislikes. Based on this information, what can this person reasonably conclude?
Algorithms may be linking him with like-minded information.

95% of American citizens are billionaires. Sam is an American citizen. Therefore, Sam is a billionaire. Which set of terms classify this argument?
Valid and unsound & Strong and uncogent

A person is considering what transportation to use when visiting a friend in a different city. The first thing that comes to mind is a recent news story about a train crash. They decide that the train is not a safe travel option. What kind of bias are they exhibiting?
Availability bias

“Peyton is an excellent dentist, so she sings well.” Which statement represents the hidden assumption that would make this argument valid?
All excellent dentists sing well.

Which argument contains the general-specific pattern?
Dogs are a subspecies of a wolf and collie is a breed of dog, so collies are wolves.

Ren is an excellent barista, so he is a master chess player. Which statement represents the hidden assumption that would best complete this argument?
Ren is very analytical. & Anyone who is an excellent barista must be a master chess player.

Traces of ammonia have been found in Mars’ atmosphere. So there must be life on Mars.Which statement summarizes the hidden assumption in the given argument?
Only living things produce ammonia.

“All dogs have four legs. Grover is a dog, because Grover barks like a dog. So Grover has four legs.” Which statement represents indirect support?
Grover barks like a dog.

“If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. Magicians can pull rabbits out of hats. Therefore, I know that magic is real.” Which two statements represent conjoint support when mapping this example to a body of propositions?
If magicians can pull rabbits out of hats, then magic is real. & Magicians can pull rabbits out of hats.

Which two sentences reflect strong critical thinking?
My opponent’s position is contrary to mine; my opponent, however, raises some good questions. & I am unsure of the answer; I will need to research the issue further.

Which two statements best characterize the following argument?”Coffee has caffeine; therefore, it has stimulating effects.”
The argument includes a single premise. & The argument includes a single conclusion.

“There are not any good seafood restaurants in this city. I tried two, and they were both terrible.” Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this example?
Hasty generalization

A flight attendant accidentally spills a drink on a passenger. The passenger tells a friend that the flight attendants for the airline are incompetent.Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this example?
Hasty generalization

A teacher talks with a student about failing to turn in homework. The student replies by expressing a desire to dress up as a superhero for Halloween. Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?
Red herring

Either everyone will devour this pecan pie, or they will choose another dessert. Which two statements accurately describe this proposition?
The proposition mistakes causation for correlation. & The proposition contains black and white thinking. & The proposition includes a false dichotomy.

Which fallacy of weak induction best describes the following example? “If we allow the children to stay home from school today, they will expect to stay home every time it snows. Next they will expect to stay home whenever it rains, when it is too cold, too hot, or even too nice outside. Eventually the children will stay home from school every day.”
Slippery slope

A soccer fan buys a jersey with his favorite player’s name and number on the back. When the player’s performance decreases, the fan attributes it to the jersey he bought. Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

Equivocation Fallacy
The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument and then another meaning in another portion of the argument.

hasty generalization fallacy
The hasty generalization fallacy is sometimes called the over-generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small. Essentially, you can’t make a claim and say that something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence.

appeal to ignorance fallacy
This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it.

Slippery slope fallacy
A slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone makes a claim about a series of events that would lead to one major event, usually a bad event. In this fallacy, a person makes a claim that one event leads to another event and so on until we come to some awful conclusion.

post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy
Post hoc ergo propter hoc is an informal fallacy that states: “Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X.” It is often shortened simply to post hoc fallacy

Shifting the burden of proof fallacy
Shifting the burden of proof, a special case of argumentum ad ignorantium, is the fallacy of putting the burden of proof on the person who denies or questions the assertion being made. The source of the fallacy is the assumption that something is true unless proven otherwise. EX: One example of the burden of proof fallacy is someone who claims that ghosts exists, but doesn’t prove this, and instead shifts the burden of proof to others, by stating that anyone who disagrees should prove ghosts don’t exist.

Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs or hypotheses. Confirmation bias happens when a person gives more weight to evidence that confirms their beliefs and undervalues evidence that could disprove it.

Anchoring bias
Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely too heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic. When we are setting plans or making estimates about something, we interpret newer information from the reference point of our anchor, instead of seeing it objectively.

selection bias
Selection bias is a distortion in a measure of association (such as a risk ratio) due to a sample selection that does not accurately reflect the target population. EX: Selection bias also occurs when people volunteer for a study. Those who choose to join (i.e. who self-select into the study) may share a characteristic that makes them different from non-participants from the get-go

sound argument
Soundness: An argument is sound if it meets these two criteria: (1) It is valid. (2) Its premises are true.

valid argument
A valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion must be true whenever the hypotheses are true. EX: “It rains only if I carry an umbrella” can be rewritten as “If it rains, then I carry an umbrella.”
“All citizens of Egypt speak Arabic.” can be rewritten as “If someone is a citizen of Egypt, then they speak Arabic.”

unsound argument
An unsound argument is either an invalid argument or a valid argument with at least one false premise. EX: All dogs are mammals. Therefore, dogs are cows. The above argument contains true premises, but it is invalid since the conclusion doesn’t logically follow from the premises. Therefore, it is also an unsound argument.

strong argument
A strong argument is a non-deductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not conclusive, logical support for its conclusion.

cogent argument
A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is both strong and all of its premises are true.

uncogent argument
An uncogent argument is an inductive argument that is either weak or has at least one false premise.

Denying the Antecedent
also known as inverse error and fallacy of the inverse, is a logical fallacy whereby someone fallaciously makes an inverse deduction in a conditional statement. It takes one cause as a condition for something else to occur and then states that the latter won’t occur when the condition is observed to be untrue.

representativeness
is a logical fallacy whereby someone fallaciously makes an inverse deduction in a conditional statement. It takes one cause as a condition for something else to occur and then states that the latter won’t occur when the condition is observed to be untrue.

Affirming the Consequent
is a logical fallacy that involves taking a true statement and assuming the converse form would be true as well. Formally, we can represent this fallacy as follows: If X is the case, then Y is also the case. Y is true, so X must be true as well.

anchoring and adjustment
the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by using a starting point (called an anchor) and then making adjustments up or down (a cognitive heuristic where a person starts off with an initial idea and adjusts their beliefs based on this starting point.)

availability
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common EX: two girls saw a plane crash on the news and cancel their flight presuming they will meet the same fate.

Principle of Charity
we should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person presenting the argument

the fallacy fallacy
is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that if an argument contains a logical fallacy, then its conclusion must be false.

Inference
A conclusion one can draw from the presented details. EX: “if there is a storm, then the office is closed.” means “if the office is closed, then I don’t go to work.”

weak argument
a non-deductive argument that fails to provide probable support for its conclusion.

Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.

• I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
• I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.
• Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
• While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right.
• I disagree with my opponent’s position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
• I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.

Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.

• Hey, let’s go to lunch at noon today.
• Mangino’s has the best pizza.
• They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
• Do you like Mangino’s pizza?
• Mangino’s has the best pizza.
• They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.

Which statement is a simple proposition?

1. Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
2. I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
3. I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
4. By noon, the sun was shining.

By noon, the sun was shining.

Which indicator is a premise indicator?

Hence

Because

Thus

Therefore

Because

Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research.

Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.

• Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
• The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
• The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
• Banks should help fund industry research
• The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
• Banks should help fund industry research

Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.

Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?

• German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
• Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
• You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
• It is important to select the right breed for your needs.

You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.

Everyone should vote _______.

Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?

• because it is their duty
• for the most honest candidate
• in their assigned district
• before the deadline

because it is their duty

People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time.
Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
Proposition
Inference
Weak argument
Strong argument
Proposition

Jordan says, “I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car.” Taylor, Jordan’s best friend, totally agrees.
Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan’s comments? Choose two answers.
Weak argument
Proposition
Inference
Strong argument

• Weak argument
• Inference

All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Deductive
Invalid
Inductive
Abductive
Deductive

Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny.
Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
Valid
Sound
Inductive
Deductive
Inductive

All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly.
Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.

Deductive
Valid
True
Sound
Deductive
Valid

An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall.
Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.
Deductive
Valid
Strong
Cogent
Strong
Cogent

If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Affirming the consequent

If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Denying the antecedent

One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong.
Which type of logic error is this an example of?
Affirming the consequent
Denying the antecedent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
Begging the question

My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round.
This is an example of which type of logic error?
Denying the antecedent
Affirming the consequent
Begging the question
The fallacy fallacy
The fallacy fallacy

Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?

Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
Whether the article contains video footage
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media
Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified

While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not.

What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?

• Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a government agency.
• The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it reflects professionalism and objectivity.
• It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
• The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it is more straightforward and objective.

It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.

In which way should an information source be approached if it is stating that it is the only source of real information and that other sources cannot be trusted?

• Confidently, because the source likely has exclusive information.
• Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.
• Confidently, because the source is concerned with telling the true story.
• Skeptically, because the source reflects a formal fallacy.
  Skeptically, because the source may lack credibility.

Politician A proposes new tax cuts for large corporations. Initially Politician B opposes these tax cuts. However, instead of quickly dismissing the proposal as a mere favor to powerful interests, Politician B first considers the strongest available evidence for the argument that Politician A’s proposal could create new jobs and stimulate the economy.

Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?

Confirmation bias

The principle of charity

Availability

Heuristics

The principle of charity

An individual does not believe the moon landing ever occurred. She claims there are plenty of internet postings that agree with this idea, and while photos, documentation, witness accounts, and physical evidence of a moon landing may exist, these are all things that can easily be manufactured by the government, which cannot be trusted.

Which argumentation concept does this passage illustrate?

Anchoring and adjustment

Confirmation bias

Denying the antecedent

Representativeness

Confirmation bias

Which error may the principle of charity help minimize?
Representativeness
Confirmation bias
Denying the antecedent
Anchoring and adjustment
Confirmation bias

Which two errors represent cognitive biases? Choose 2 answers.

• Representativeness
• Cogency
• Validity
• Availability
• Representativeness
• Availability

Which two statements are true with respect to heuristics? Choose 2 answers.

• They are problematic because they represent formal logic fallacies.
• They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases.
• They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions.
• They are problematic because they lack validity.
• They are problematic because they can lead to cognitive biases.
• They are helpful because they enable fast, efficient decisions.

Which action can simply be taken in many instances to gain a clearer, more accurate understanding of a situation?
Checking social media
Affirming the consequent
Narrowing the topic
Broadening our perspective
Broadening our perspective

Critical thinkers are constantly alert for possible biases in their own thinking.
When the potential for bias is present, which two actions may strong critical thinkers take to help minimize bias in their thinking? Choose 2 answers.

• Employ heuristics for decision-making
• Look for consensus on social media
• Broaden their sources of information
• Slow their thought process
• Broaden their sources of information
• Slow their thought process

Elliott notices that many of the news articles, blogs, social media postings, and other information she sees on the internet support her view on a particular issue.
Based on this information, what can Elliott reasonably conclude with respect to their view on the issue?
Most people likely agree with Elliott’s view.
Elliott’s view is most likely incorrect.
Elliott’s view is most likely correct.
Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.
Algorithms may be linking Elliott with like-minded information.

An anonymous survey is conducted to determine what percentage of the population of married couples lies to their spouse, so the following survey question is formulated: “I don’t lie to my spouse because that would be wrong,” and participants are asked to select “true” or “false.”

Which statement is true with respect to this study question?

• Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way.
• Not good, because it fails to consider the participant’s motives.
• Good, because it addresses the central issue in the study.
• Good, because the study is anonymous.

Not good, because the question may lead participants to answer in a certain way.

A report concludes that people who drive red cars get more speeding tickets than people who drive other color cars. Based on this report, an individual concludes that red cars encourage people to drive fast.
Which concept does this conclusion illustrate?
The principle of charity
Anchoring
Selection bias
Representativeness
Selection bias

To understand how people in a county feel about a proposed increase in property taxes, a person walks door-to-door in his neighborhood, asking people to complete a survey.

Which two statements are true with regard to this statistical sample? Choose 2 answers.

Not good because it lacks validity

Good because it is sound

Not good because it is not representative

Not good because it is not random

Not good because it is not representative
Not good because it is not random

A young person is wearing a tie-dyed shirt and driving a Volkswagen (VW) bus. Based on this, another individual concludes that this person has liberal political views.
Which bias does this reasoning reflect?
Availability bias
Anchoring and adjustment bias
Confirmation bias
Representativeness bias
Representativeness bias

A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has never served in the military.

Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter’s argument?

• Pointing out that the premise of the reporter’s argument is flawed
• Pointing out the reporter’s well-known reputation for taking faulty positions – Pointing out the reporter’s affiliation with news networks that are known to have a political slant to their coverage
• Pointing out that the reporter has never served in the military
  Pointing out that the premise of the reporter’s argument is flawed

n a political science debate, Student A says she supports raising the national minimum wage to $15 an hour. Student B disagrees with Student A’s position.

Which response from Student B is a red herring fallacy?

• Student B stating her concern about international policy
• Student B stating the $15 rate would not help to lift poor families above the poverty line
• Student B stating businesses cannot offset the hourly wage increase by raising the cost of goods and services
• Student B stating Student A does not have a background in economics

Student B stating her concern about international policy

Reese’s partner was unfaithful, and this led to the end of their relationship; Reese has decided to avoid relationships because people cannot be trusted.

Which fallacy of weak induction is exemplified in this argument?

Slippery slope

Hasty generalization

Equivocation

Appeal to ignorance

Hasty generalization

Which two statements depict the fallacy of presumption called begging the question? Choose 2 answers.

• The universe could not have been created from nothing, so it must have been created by the big bang.
• People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility.
• Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.
• Washington DC is the capital city of the United States of America.
• People who lack humility have no sense of beauty, because everyone who has a sense of beauty also has humility.
• Real estate is the best investment because every other type of investment is inferior.

There is a conversation in which a woman expresses disappointment with her friend for not picking her up at the airport. In response, the friend says, “Well, you never returned the wheelbarrow I let you borrow.”

Which response best matches this fallacy of relevance?

Red herring

False cause

Genetic fallacy

Straw figure

Red herring

“A recent study found that dairy milk is healthier than soy milk. But that finding is obviously false because the study was conducted by the dairy industry.”

Which fallacy of relevance is depicted in this example?

Post hoc ergo propter

Irrelevant appeal

Begging the question

Genetic fallacy

Genetic fallacy

Aircraft and ships have gone missing all over the planet under unknown circumstances, but a number of these disappearances have occurred in an area of the North Atlantic Ocean known as the Bermuda Triangle. So the claim that the Bermuda Triangle is haunted must be true.

Which fallacy of weak induction best describes this argument?
Burden of proof shifting
Slippery slope
Appeal to ignorance
Texas sharpshooter
Texas sharpshooter

Texas Sharpshooter
an informal fallacy that is committed when similarities in data are overemphasized.

“If you are not at the game rooting for our high school football team, then you must not have any school spirit.”

Which two statements accurately describe this argument? Choose 2 answers.

• The argument includes a false dichotomy.
• The argument assumes the truth of the conclusion in the premise.
• The argument contains black-and-white thinking.
• The argument mistakes causation for correlation.
• The argument includes a false dichotomy.
• The argument contains black-and-white thinking.

Which statement is the burden of proof fallacy?

• A mother tells her child it is time to go to bed, and when the child asks why, the mother responds, “Because I said so.”
• Proponents of sex education want to give kids license to have sex with no consequences.
• A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot’s existence, the hiker replies, ‘prove Big Foot is not real.
• “Since you have not been able to prove you did not steal the bicycle, I will assume you are guilty.”
  A hiker claims that Big Foot is real. When asked for evidence of Big Foot’s existence, the hiker replies, ‘prove Big Foot is not real.

Since I received high marks in the course, I conclude that Professor Murdock is a good teacher.

What is the unstated assumption in this argument?

• Students like and respect Mrs. Murdock.
• Mrs. Murdock’s class is lacking in educational rigor.
• Students who do homework and study for exams get good grades.
• A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.

A teacher is good if the teacher gives good grades.

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