The tissue through which gases are exchanged between the blood and the air in the lungs is
simple squamous epithelium
Body heat is lost primarily by
radiation
Bone cells form concentric circles around longitudinal tubes called
central canals
A body has been sectioned in such a way that there is one whole lung per section and the urinary bladder has been split in half. What type of section is this?
sagittal
Which type of tissue lines the follicles of the thyroid glands?
simple cuboidal epithelium
The anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration take place in the
cytoplasm
Which action is the main function of the digestive system?
absorption of nutrients
A cell is surrounded by an extremely thin, flexible membrane. Why is the membrane selectively permeable?
It allows some substances to pass through and excludes others based on size, polarity, and other factors.
What type of tissue is adipose tissue?
connective tissue
The human integumentary system includes
skin, nails, hair follicles, and sweat glands
DNA and RNA differ in that
DNA holds genetic information and RNA uses that information to synthesize protein.
Maintaining a stable internal environment typically requires
negative feedback mechanism
Transcription and translation differ in that
transcription produces RNA and translation produces protein.
Endoplasmic reticulum is best described as a
network of interconnected membranes
The major blood vessels that supply the skin are in the
dermis
Matter is composed of elements, which are composed of __.
atoms
For which of the following organelles are the structure and function correctly described?
Endoplasmic reticulum—a network of interconnected membranes forming sacs and canals that packages protein molecules for secretion
Which of the following are cellular fragments?
blood platelets
Homeostasis exists if concentrations of water, nutrients, and oxygen in the body are balanced and heat and pressure __.
remain within certain limited ranges
An isotonic solution
has the same osmotic pressure as the cells in the solution
Which of the following characteristics of life and their descriptions is correct?
Circulation—the movement of substances in body fluids
Which of the following characteristics is used to name tissue types?
organization of cells
The isotope most likely to be used to study the thyroid gland is
iodine-131
The type of epithelium that lines the urinary bladder and many of the urinary passageways is
transitional
ATP is important to cellular processes because it
provides energy for cellular work when the terminal, high-energy bond is broken.
In phagocytosis
a cell membrane engulfs solid particles.
Anatomy and physiology are difficult to separate because
physiological functions depend on anatomical structures.
A burn affecting only the epidermis is a
superficial partial-thickness burn
In treating a burn patient, the “rule of nines” is used to estimate the
surface area of the burn.
Simple squamous epithelium is an example of a(n)
tissue
A complete atom is electrically neutral because
the number of electrons equals the number of protons.
Involuntary muscle tissues are
smooth muscle tissue and cardiac muscle tissue
Bone cells and muscle cells differ in structure and function because
each expresses a different subset of genes.
If the concentration of glucose in the water outside of a cell is higher than the concentration inside,
water will leave the cell by osmosis
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation greatly increases the risk of developing
skin cancer
Which of the nitrogenous bases is part of DNA, but not RNA?
thymine
The pH scale measures the
concentration of hydrogen ions
The removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions is
excretion
The breakdown of table sugar into glucose and fructose is an example of a(n) __ reaction.
hydrolysis
Functions of neuroglia include which of the following?
They support and bind nervous tissue and provide nutrients and growth factors to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels.
growth of body parts
Which of the following is the most abundant inorganic substance in the body?
water
Which of the following is not a characteristic of enzymes?
They are most active at temperatures above 53 degrees C.
Cells are placed in a solution that causes them to absorb liquid until they burst. When more water is removed from the solution, newly added cells do not burst. The original solutions was _ , while the second was _ to the cells.
hypotonic; isotonic
Which organelle contains the nucleolus?
nucleus
Exposure to ultraviolet light darkens skin by stimulating synthesis of
melanin
Epidermis is _, whereas dermis is _.
composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue; composed of connective tissue, smooth muscle, and nerve cell processes
Dehydration synthesis reactions _ , whereas hydrolysis reactions _ .
lose H2O as bonds are formed; use H2O to break bonds
The dermis is composed largely of
dense irregular connective tissue
Skin cells play an important role in producing
Vitamin D
Vesicles are formed from the
cell membrane
The upper midportion of the abdomen is called the __________region.
epigastric
In all organisms, the basic unit of structure and function is
the cell
Molecules bind to receptor sites and are enclosed in vesicles in the process of
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
The tissue that forms the inner lining of the respiratory passages is
mucus-secreting, ciliated, and pseudostratified.
Which of the following is an example of catabolism?
The breakdown of glucose in the cytoplasm and mitochondria
The activities of an anatomist consist of _, whereas those of a physiologist consist of _.
observing body parts; studying functions of body parts
Which of the following diseases would originate in the abdominopelvic cavity?
pancreatitis
Specialized cell types organized in a way that provides a specific function form
tissues, which build organs
As cells are pushed from the deeper portion of the epidermis toward the surface,
they die
Which of the following is not true of organelles?
They are only in cells of humans.
Which of the following describes the epidermis?
all of the answer choices are correct
A peptide bond forms between
adjacent amino acids
If one strand of DNA has the sequence TCAGGCTATTCCCG, then the complementary sequence of the other strand is
AGTCCGATAAGGGC.
Histology is the study of
tissues
The anatomical term that indicates a structure is towards the front is
anterior
A hypotonic solution
has a lower concentration (number) of impermeant solute than do the cells in the solution.
A mutation can cause disease if
the DNA sequence changes so that one amino acid is substituted for another in a way that affects the encoded protein’s functioning.
Eccrine sweat glands
respond primarily to elevated body temperature
Which of the following is not correct concerning the skin?
The subcutaneous layer is between the dermis and the epidermis.
Which of the following is not an example of a negative homeostatic mechanism in the human body?
Retention of fluid leading to retention of more fluid
Programmed cell death occurs during development, including the removal of webbing between fingers of the fetus. This process is known as
apoptosis
A person has alkalemia if the blood pH
rises above 7.5.
Blood cells are produced in the organs of the __________system.
skeletal
The layer of the epidermis that includes melanocytes and a single row of columnar cells that undergo mitosis is the
stratum basale
Explain the difference between the study of Anatomy and the study of Physiology
Anatomy is the study of structure of body parts/Physiology is the study of function of body parts
Name and define the levels of organization of life
Organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
Define Metabolisim
The sum of all physical and chemical events that obtain, release, and utilize energy
Define Homeostasis. How does a homeostatic mechanism maintain homeostasis?
The body’s maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Depend on normal concentrations of water, nutrients, and oxygen, and normal body temperature and pressure
What is meant by negative feedback? How does negative feedback affect homeostatic mechanisms?
Works to correct a deviation from a set point (Tries to get back to the set point/normal)
Describe the structure of a serous membrane
Smooth membrane consisting of 2 layers of epithelial cells which secrete serous fluid
What are signs of aging at the cellular level?
Impaired cell division and the ability to break down and recycle worn cell parts
What is meant by anatomical position?
Universal body position: Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward and thumbs out.
Explain why chemistry is an important part of the study of Physiology
Body functions depend on cellular functions that, in turn, result from chemical changes
Atom
The smallest unit of matter that defines the chemical elements
Element
Fundamental substances in which all matter is composed of
Molecule
2 or more atoms may combine to form a molecule
Compound
A substance made from two or more elements chemically combined
Name the bulk elements of the body
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, and Phosphorus
What do atomic number and atomic weight of an atom represent?
Atomic Number is the number of protons in the atoms of a particular element/Atomic Weight is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each of an element’s atoms
Define Ion. How do we indicate in a molecular formula if an atom is an ion?
Ions are atoms that gain or lose electrons and become electrically charged
Isotope
An isotope is an atom that have the same atomic numbers but different atomic weights
Distinguish between types of chemical reactions: Synthesis, Decomposition, Exchange, and Reversible
Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in water.
Acid
Acids are electrolytes that dissociate the release hydrogen ions in water
Base
A compound that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water
Neutral compound
Occurs when ions of opposite charges attract one another to form electrically neutral compounds.
How are acid and bases represented on the pH scale?
Any pH number greater than 7 is considered a base and any pH number less than 7 is considered an acid. 0 is the strongest acid and 14 is the strongest base.
How do hydrogen ion concentrations change as the numbers change?
As the hydrogen concentration increases, the pH decreases
What is Acidosis? Alkalosis?
Acidosis = pH less than 7.35
Alkalosis =pH rise in the blood
What distinguishes an organic compound from an inorganic compound?
Organic compounds result from the activity of living beings, whereas inorganic compounds are either the result of natural processes unrelated to any life form or the result of human experimentation in the laboratory
Give examples and characteristics of the 4 types of Organic Molecules
1) Carbohydrate: Immediate source of energy for organisms. Ex: Monosaccaharides, simple sugars.
2) Lipids: Stored energy for later use in organisms, insulation, and protection of delicate organs. Ex: Fats, oils, triglycerides.
3) Protein: Organic catalysts, digestive enzymes, structural protein in hair, structural protein in skin. Ex: Enzymes, collagen, keratin.
4) Nucleic Acids: Carries Genetic Info and synthesizes proteins. Ex: DNA, RNA
What is the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated fat?
Saturated fats contain only saturated fatty acids, whereas unsaturated fats contain at least 1 unsaturated fatty acid
How are the levels (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) of structure of a protein created?
Primary is the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain.
Secondary is formation of an alpha helix or a beta-pleated sheet.
Tertiary is the folding of the secondary structure.
Quaternary forms when several polypeptide chains connect to form a very large protein
What are three major parts of a cell?
Nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane
What are organelles?
Small structures found floating in the cytoplasm along with the nucleus that help with cellular processes
Describe the basic structure of the cell/plasma membrane
What is meant by a “selectively permeable membrane”
Only certain substances are able to pass through the cell membrane
Hydrophobic
Repelling water/Not soluble with water
Hydrophillic
Likes water/Water soluble
Describe the process of simple diffusion
Movement from high concentration to low concentration, requires NO energy
Describe the process of facilitated diffusion
Movement of a substance across a cell membrane going from high to low concentration with the help of a carrier protein in the cell membrane
Describe osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Describe filtration
The process of forcing molecules through a membrane
Active transport
The movement of materials against a concentration difference that requires energy
Endocytosis
The process of a cell engulfing a substance by forming a vesicle around the substance
Pinocytosis
Endocytosis of tiny droplets of liquids
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis of solids
What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?
Moves very specific kinds of particles into the cell; a substance must bind to a receptor before it can enter the cell
What is exocytosis?
The reverse of endocytosis
What is transcytosis?
Moves substances from one end of a cell to the other end of the cell
Hypertonic
More water outside of cell than in cell/Cells shrink
Hypotonic
More water in cell than on the outside/Cells swell
Isotonic
Having the same concentration inside and outside of cell
How does the number of solute particles affect osmotic pressure?
What are the phases and the order of the Cell Cycle?
Interphase:
Prophase:
Metaphase:
Anaphase:
Telophase:
Cytokinesis:
Cell differentiation
The process by which genetically identical cells of an embryo become specialized or the process by which stable differences arise between cells of the embryo
What is a tumor?
Abnormal growth of cells
What is the difference between benign and a malignant tumor?
A benign tumor is one that remains in place, eventually interfering with the function of healthy tissue; A malignant tumor is invasive and extends into surrounding tissues
What is stem cell?
Divides mitotically to produce either 2 daughter cells like itself, or 1 daughter cell that is a stem cell and 1 that is partially specialized
What is Progenitor cell?
A partly specialized cell that is intermediate between a stem cell and fully differentiated cell
What is the difference between cells that are totipotent vs pluripotent?
Totipotency is the ability of all living cells potentially to regenerate whole new individuals, Pluripotency is the potential of a cell to develop into more than one type of mature cell, depending on environment.
Anabolism
Provides all the materials required for cellular growth and repair/Larger molecules are constructed from smaller ones
Catabolism
A group of metabolic processes that break down larger molecules into smaller ones
Explain the process/purpose of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions
Joins many simple sugar molecules to form larger molecules of glycogen/Without water
Can decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins/A water molecule is used to split substances/Reverse of dehydration synthesis
What type of organic molecule are enzyme?
Most are globular proteins that promote specific chemical reactions in cells by lowering the activation energy required to start these chemical reactions
What general function do enzymes have in the body?
Enzymes function as catalysts, which means that they speed up the rate at which metabolic processes and reactions occur in living organisms
What is the role of enzymes in metabolism?
Describe on a molecular level how enzymes perform their function
What are cofactors?
Helps an active site obtain its appropriate shape or helps bind the enzymes to its substrate
Coenzymes
Organic molecules that act as cofactors
How are vitamins important to enzymes?
What is the structure and function of ATP
An adenine, a ribose, and 3 phosphates in a chain
What is the purpose of protein synthesis?
Protein synthesis is the making of proteins for the cell to use and amino acids are put together in a specific order to make each protein
What are the major stages of protein synthesis reaction?
What is the purpose of cellular repiration?
Process that releases energy from molecules such as glucose and makes it available for cellular use
What are the major stages of cellular respiration pathway?
What major event occur in each stage?
Glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Kreb’s), and Electron Transport Chain
Gene
A portion of a DNA molecule that contains the genetic information for making a particular protein
Chromosome
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA, protein, and RNA found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequence.
Genome
All of an organism’s genetic material
What is meant by complementary base pairing of nucleotide?
Compare and contrast the structure and function of DNA and of RNA molecules
Codon
A codon is the sequence of three bases on mRNA that codes for a single amino acid
Anticodon
A three base sequence on tRNA
Mutation
A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations in a gene’s DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene
Mutagen
An agent that causes mutations
Histology
Study of tissues
Tissue
A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function
Describe the 3 types of intercellular junctions
Tight junctions: They are impermeable junctions that bind cells together into leak proof sheets that prevent substances from passing through the space between cells
Desmosomes: Located in cells of the skin and function to form a reinforced structural unit
Gap Junctions: Located in cells of the heart muscle and muscle cells of digestive tract and function to link the cytoplasm of adjacent cells and allow ions, nutrients, and other small molecules to move between them
What are the 4 basic types/groups of tissue?
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous
Briefly describe the function of the basement membrane of epithelial tissue
The underside of epithelial tissue is anchored by a basement membrane to connective tissue
How are epithelial tissues named? – by what characteristics
They are classified according to the shape and numbers of layers of cells
Describe the structure and list the functions of the various epithelial tissues, including glandular epithelium
Name and describe the various structural types of exocrine glands
Secrete their products into ducts that open onto a surface
Define Extracellular Matrix of connective tissue
In the connective tissue, matrix is secreted by connective tissue cells into the space surrounding them, where it serves to bind cells together
Describe the 3 main types of cells and 3 main types of fibers found in connective tissues
Fibroblasts, Macrophages, and Mast
Collagenous, Elastic, and Reticular
Describe the structure and function of each 4 types of membranes found in the human body
Note the structural and functional differences among the 3 types of muscle tissue.
The cells of which muscle type contain many nuclei in one cell?
State the general functions of neuroglia
What are the functional parts of the integumentary system?
Skin, nails, hair, glands, and nerves
List the functions of the skin
Prevents many harmful substances from entering the body, retards water loss, helps regulate body temperature, houses sensory receptors, contains immune system cells, synthesizes vitamin D, and excretes a small amount of waste products
What vitamin precursor is produced by the skin?
Vitamin D is produced in the skin through the action of ultraviolet light on precursors in human sweat
What is an injection administered into the skin called?
Intradermal injections
Name the 3 layers of the skin. What tissues comprise each layer? What are the special features of each layer?
Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous
Describe the strata of the epidermis? How does the layers differ?
Describe the various substances that color the skin
Melanin production
disease factors that affect skin coloration
Describe the vascularization( location of blood vessles) of the skin
How are fingerprints created on the skin?
Form from undulations of the dermis and epidermis at the distal end of the palmar surface of a finger
What is the function of the nerve tissue in the skin?
Nerve tissue transfers signals in the body and its organ to tell the body how to respond to changes in its internal and external environments
Name the parts of a nail. Name the substances that creates the hardness of a nail
Nail plate, Nail bed, and Lunula
What are the parts and composition of a hair and ts follicle
Name and describe two forms of melanin that give hair its color?
Eumelanin is brownish-black and Pheomelanin is blond and red
Describe the function of the arrector pili muscle
Is attached to hair follicle; when muscle contracts the hair stands on end, raising goose bumps; triggered if a person is emotionally upset or very cold
Describe the structure and function of sebaceous glands
Contain groups of specialized epithelial cells; Open directly onto the surface of the skin and excretes sebum
Describe the structure and function of eccrine and apocrine sweat glands
Eccrine sweat glands respond to body temperature elevated by environmental heat or exercise; Apocrine sweat glands wet certain areas of skin when a person is nervous or stressed
Describe the structure and function of ceruminous
Ear wax
Describe the structure and function of mammary glandss
milk
Describe the process of healing a wound, including scab formation.
Blood escapes from dermal blood vessels, a blood clot soon forms, the blood clot and dried tissue fluid form a scab, blood vessels send out branches and fibroblasts migrate into area, fibroblasts produce new connective tissue fibers, scab sloughs off
Name and describe the different categories of burns
First degree – Only affects the epidermis
Second degree- Affects a part of the dermis and epidermis; blisters appear
Third degree- Destroys the epidermis, dermis, and the accessory structures; skin becomes dry and leathery
How is the “rule of nines” used
Divides the skin’s surface area using multiples of 9
What are the changes seen in skin due to aging? How/Why does this occur
Age spots, wrinkles, sagging, and dryness
What is the primary cause of skin cancer?
The main cause of skin cancer is exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation
How can skin cancer be prevented?
Use sunscreen with high SPF, cover your skin, and avoid the sun between the hours of 10 and 2.
What are the 3 types of skin cancer?
There are three major types of skin cancers: basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma
Which type of skin cancer is most likely to develop?
STUDENT STUDY GUIDE for APHY 101 MIDTERMThe following is a list of all the main concepts from the first 6 chapters of the textbook. This is aguide to help you focus your studies. Remember to also use the LearnSmart modules and your previous exams/quizzes to help you prepare for the exam.Chapter 1- Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology1. What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?Anatomy examines the structures, physiology considers the functions2. What are the levels of organization and define each.Subatomic particles- particles smaller than an atomAtoms- tiny particles that make up materialsMolecules- atoms joined togetherMacromolecules- small molecules joined togetherOrganelles- structures in a cell that perform specific activitiesCells- the basic unit of structure and functionTissue- layers or masses of specialized cells that have a specific functionOrgans- formed by groups of tissues to perform certain functionsOrgan systems- groups of organs that function closely togetherOrganisms- made of interacting organ systems3. What are the characteristics of life and define each.Growth- increase in cell number and size/increase in body sizeReproduction- production of new cells and organismsResponsiveness- reaction to a change inside or outside the bodyMovement- change in body position or location/motion of internal organsMetabolism- the sum of all chemical reactions in a living system/energy & nutrient cycling4. What are the requirements of life? Why is each important?Water- required for metabolism, provides environment, carries substancesFood- provides energy for cellular lifeOxygen- required for aerobic metabolismHeat- form of energy that helps determine rate of metabolism and chemical reactionsPressure- differences in pressure allow breathing to occur and blood to flow5. Define homeostasis.The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment6. What is a homeostatic mechanism?A self-regulating control system based on feedback loopsChapter 2 – Chemical Basis of Life1. Define matter, element, and atom. What is the basic unit of matter?Matter- anything that has weight and occupies spaceElement- any fundamental chemical substance, each characterized by a distinct type of atomAtom- smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element (basic unit)2. What is the structure of an atom? An atom has a central nucleus and one or more electrons that moves around the nucleus. The nucleus contains one or more protons and usually also has neutrons.
- Define nucleus, proton, neutron, and electron. What charges do each of these particles have?Nucleus- dense core of an atom composed of protons and neutronsProton- positively charged particle in an atomic nucleusNeutron- electrically neutral subatomic particleElectron- small negatively charged particle that encircles the nucleus of an atom 4. What are covalent, ionic and hydrogen bonds? What are the differences among the three?Covalent- chemical bond formed by electron sharing between atomsIonic- chemical bond between two ions formed by transfer of electrons (+ attracted to -)Hydrogen- weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an atom of oxygen or nitrogenThe differences between covalent and ionic are that covalent bonds are with atoms, and ionic bonds are with ions of those atoms. Both differ from hydrogen bonds in the bonding mechanism 5. Define synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions.Synthesis reaction- bonding small molecules to build larger onesDecomposition reaction- breakdown of moleculesExchange reaction- chemical reaction in which parts of two types of molecules trade positions 6. What is a reactant? a product?Reactant- a chemical that takes part in a chemical reaction (starting material)Product- the result of a chemical reaction 7. Define catalyst.Chemical that increases the rate of a chemical reaction but is not permanently altered by the reaction 8. What happens and what is produced when salts dissolve in water?The atoms in the molecule dissociate due to the reaction between an acid and a base, and ionize into ions called electrolytes 9. What is an acid? a base?Acid- substance releases hydrogen ions (H+)Base- substance that releases ions that can combine with hydrogen ions (H+)10. What is the pH scale? What ions are involved in the pH scale?The pH scale tracks the concentrations of acids and bases in a substance by representing the number of H+ molecules in a solution by how many grams/liter there are (0.1, 0.01, etc.)11. What is the difference between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule?Organic molecule- molecule containing both carbon and hydrogenInorganic molecule- molecule that does not contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms12. What is dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?Dehydration synthesis- anabolic process joining small molecules by releasing the equivalent of a water moleculeHydrolysis- enzymatically adding parts of a water molecule to split a bond13. What are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids?Carbohydrates- organic compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1Lipids- group of organic compounds that include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroidsProteins- nitrogen containing organic compounds composed of many bonded amino acidsNucleic acids- a molecule composed of bonded nucleotides (RNA or DNA)
- Explain the structure of a triglyceride, phospholipid, and steroid molecule. What are the functions of each of these molecules?Triglyceride(fat)- lipid composed of 3 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule; supplies energy for cellular activitiesPhospholipid- molecule containing two fatty acids and a phosphate group, bound to a glycerol; forms biological membranesSteroid- organic molecule including complex rings of carbon and associated hydrogen/oxygen; many functions including cholesterol, sex hormones, and some adrenal gland hormones15. What is an amino acid?An organic compound that includes an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH); the structural unit of a protein molecule16. What are enzymes?Protein that catalyzes a specific biochemical reaction17. What are the differences between DNA and RNA?DNA- nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar that forms into a double helix and store the information for protein synthesisRNA- nucleotides that have ribose sugar and are in single strands that use the information stored in the DNA to construct specific protein moleculesChapter 3 – Cells1. Describe these parts of a cell: cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, cytosol and organelles.Cell membrane- the selectively permeable outer boundary of a cell (phospholipid bilayer)Nucleus- contains the genetic material which directs cell functionCytoplasm- contents of a cell including the cytoplasm and organelles, excluding the nucleusCytosol- fluid portion of the cytoplasmOrganelles- any of the structures in a cell with a specialized function 2. What are the functions of the cell membrane?It separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid. Serves as a conduit between the two spaces 3. What is the structure of the cell membrane?Phospholipid bilayer with multiple receptor sites and channel proteins 4. What are the primary functions of each of these organelles: ribosome, smooth ER, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosome, peroxisome, centrosome, cilia, flagella, vesicle.Ribosomes- organelle composed of RNA and protein that provides structural support and enzymatic activity for protein synthesisSmooth ER- organelle composed of a network of connected membranous tubules and vesicles (transport system)Rough ER- ER studded with ribosomes for protein synthesisGolgi apparatus- organelle that refines, packages, and transports proteins from ribosomesMitochondria- organelle housing enzymes that catalyze aerobic reactions of cellular respirationLysosome- organelle that contains digestive enzymesPeroxisome-cytoplasmic vesicle containing enzymes to catalyze reactions that produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide
Centrosome- cellular organelle consisting of two centriolesCilia- microscopic, hairlike extensions of the exposed surfaces of most cellsFlagella- relatively long, motile process that extends from the surface of a sperm cellVesicle- membranous, cytoplasmic sac that stores and transports a substance within or between cells 5. What are the functions of these parts of the nucleus: nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, nucleolus, chromatin.Nuclear envelope- separates the nucleus from the cytoplasmNuclear pores- protein-lined channel in the envelope to allow movement in and out of nucleusNucleolus- site of ribosome production in center of nucleusChromatin- complex of DNA and protein making up the cell’s 46 chromosomes 6. Define diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, filtration, active transport, endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis), exocytosis, and transcytosis. Which of these requires energy(ATP)?Diffusion- random movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentrationOsmosis- movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane toward a higher concentration of soluteFacilitated diffusion- protein channel or a carrier molecule transports a substance across a cell membrane from a higher concentration to lower concentrationFiltration- movement of molecules through a membrane because of hydrostatic pressureActive transport- process that requires energy and a carrier molecule to move substance against concentration gradientEndocytosis- cell membrane envelops a particle and draws it into the cell in a vesicleExocytosis- transport of substances out of a cell in a membrane bound vesicleTranscytosis- combination of receptor-mediated endocytosis and exocytosis to move particles through a cell layer 7. What is the difference among isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. What would happen to a cell placed in each of these solutions?Isotonic- same levels solute and water; cell stays sameHypotonic- less solute than water; cells gain water and swellHypertonic- more solute than water; cells lose water and shrink 8. Explain each of these events of the cell cycle: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis.Interphase- cell grows and maintains its routine functionsProphase- chromatin condense and shorten into chromosomes, becoming visibleMetaphase- spindle fibers attach to the centromeres and align midway in cellAnaphase- centromeres of the chromatids separate and become individual chromosomesTelophase- chromosomes complete migration towards the centrioles and process reversesCytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm at the end of telophaseChapter 4 – Cellular Metabolism1. What is anabolism and catabolism? How are these related to metabolism?Anabolism- small molecules are built up into larger ones, requiring energyCatabolism- larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones, releasing energy2. What is an enzyme?Protein that catalyzes a specific biochemical reaction - How does an enzyme convert a substrate to a product?The active site binds with one or more substrate molecules to form an enzyme-substrate complex. This bond changes the shape of the active site, straining the bonds in the substrate(s) and lowering the energy required for the reaction to occur, resulting in the product molecule4. What is the active site on an enzyme?The site where the substrate molecules can bind5. Define denaturation.Alteration or inactivation of an enzyme due to exposure to excessive heat, radiation, electricity, fluids, or chemicals6. What is ATP? How is ATP is made? How is ATP broken down to release energy?ATP is Adenosine Triphosphate. ATP is formed in the Mitochondria during cellular respiration bythe breakdown of glucose. ATP is able to lose a phosphate group through hydrolysis to become ADP, releasing energy in the process. ADP then converts back to ATP during cellular respiration.7. What is aerobic respiration? What are the two stages? How many ATP are produced? What is produced besides ATP? Where in the cell does it take place?Cellular respiration utilizing oxygen. Aerobic respiration begins with glycolysis and then goes through the Citric Acid Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain. Aerobic respiration generates 32ATP molecules as well as CO2, NADH, H+, and FADH2. This occurs in the Mitochondria7. What is glycolysis? How does it begin and what is produced at the end?The breaking down of glucose to being cellular respiration. Enzyme catalyzed reactions breakdown a 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules that can then enter the citric acid cycle.9. What is anaerobic respiration? How many ATP are produced and what else could be produced? Where in the cell does it take place?Cellular respiration unable to utilize oxygen. NADH and H+ are unable to offload hydrogen atoms to the electron transport chain due to lack of oxygen to bind with the hydrogens. The hydrogens are then added back to the pyruvic acid to form lactic acid. The buildup of lactic acid inhibits glycolysis and slows down ATP production to only 2. This occurs in the cytoplasm.10. What is the electron transport chain? How does it make ATP?This is a series of enzyme-containing complexes that pass electrons handed to them by NADH and FADH2. The electrons move along the ETC, losing energy along the way(oxidation). This energy is transferred to ATP synthase which uses the energy to add a phosphate group back to ADP, turning it back into ATP.11. What are the characteristics of DNA? (what does it look like, what does it do?)Double helix that contains the genetic material for protein synthesis12. What are the characteristics of RNA? (what does it look like, what does it do?)Single stranded with U nucleotides instead of T nucleotides, transcribes DNA and carries information to the cytoplasm for translation13. What is a nucleotide?Building block of a nucleic acid molecule consisting of a sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group14. What are the organic bases of DNA and RNA? Which base matches with which?DNA-T with A, G with CRNA-U with A, G with C15. How is RNA made?Nucleotides form complementary base pairs with a DNA strand
- How is a protein made? (know what mRNA, tRNA, anticodons, codons, ribosomes are)mRNA- moves along a DNA strand to transcribe the protein ordertRNA- aligns amino acid molecules together to allow them to bind in the correct orderanticodons- 3 nucleotide sequence at the end of a tRNA that matches the mRNA it is aligning molecules for, allowing the hydrogen bonded end to bond with the appropriate amino acid needed in the sequencecodons- a series of 3 bases in mRNA to make an amino acidribosomes- composed of rRNA/protein and provides support/activity for protein synthesis17. What is transcription and translation?Transcription- reading of DNA by mRNA to determine the correct base protein orderTranslation- binding of mRNA to a ribosome to translate the nucleic acid order in the mRNA intoan amino acid order18. How is DNA replicated?RNA polymerase binds to the end of a DNA strand, determining which side contains the genetic information based on what side it is able to bind to. The RNA polymerase unzips the DNA strandand drags a mRNA behind it, transcribing the nucleic acid base order. The DNA zips itself back together after the mRNA moves through. At the end of the strand, the RNA polymerase kicks the mRNA off the strand, sending it through a nucleic pore and to a ribosome along the rough ER. The ribosome provides support and energy for the mRNA to be translated by tRNA. tRNA binds its anticodon to the codon of a specific mRNA. The other end of the tRNA then determines the appropriate amino acid based off of the transcribed nucleic acid order, and uses its hydrogen bonded end to bring the appropriate amino acid to the appropriate spot in the new mRNA sequence.19. What is a mutation?When an incorrect nucleotide is added to a to a new DNA molecule. If an amino acid is replaced with another, it is a missense mutation. If an amino acid is replaced with a stop codon, shorteningthe protein chain, it is a nonsense mutation.Chapter 5 – Tissues1. What is a tissue?A group of cells that are always similar in structure and perform a common function2. What are the four types of tissues in the body?Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous3. What are the general characteristics of epithelial tissue?Lack blood vessels, cells divide readily, cells are tightly packed4. How are most epithelial tissues named? (hint: cell shape and number of layers)Based off of cell shape and the number of layers present5. Where do you find each of the main epithelial tissues?Simple squamous– sites of diffusion and filtration (lungs and capillaries)
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Simple cuboidal- line follicles of thyroid, cover ovaries, lines kidneys and ductsSimple columnar- lines uterus and digestive tract, fallopian tubesPseudostratified columnar- line passages of the respiratory system (contain mucous)Stratified squamous- outer layers of the skin, oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, anusStratified cuboidal- line ducts of mammary, sweat, and salivary glands. Also pancreasStratified columnar- male urethra and lining large ducts of exocrine glandTransitional epithelium- inner lining of urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra6. What is glandular epithelium?Composed of cells specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts or body fluids7. What are the general characteristics of connective tissue? Cell types? Fiber types?Depends on the cell type. Fixed cells and wandering macrophages. Collagen fibers, elastic fibers,reticular fibers8. What is matrix?Composed of protein fibers and a ground substance consisting of nonfibrous protein, molecules, and fluid9. Know the basic differences between the main types of connective tissues.Vary based off of thickness, orientation, density, elasticity. Dense connective contain abundant collagen fibers and loose connective tissue has less collagen fibers10. Know the general characteristics of cartilage and bone connective tissues. Cartilage is a rigid connective tissue; hyaline(ends of bones, joints, and nose), elastic(ears), fibrocartilage(pads). Bone is the most rigid connective tissue. Hardens due to calcium and supports the internal structure of the body.11. What is a chondrocyte? Lacunae?Chondrocyte- cartilage cellLacunae- small chamber holding chondrocytes12. What is an osteocyte? Lamellae? Canaliculi?Osteocyte- mature bone cellLamellae- thin layers of bony matrix surrounding the central canal of an osteonCanaliculi- microscopic canals connecting lacunae of bone tissue13. What are the three types of muscle tissue? What are the general characteristics of each?Skeletal muscle- controlled consciously, long and narrow, striations, multinucleateSmooth muscle- no striations, short spindle, mononucleate, involuntaryCardiac muscle- striated and branched, mononucleate, intercalated discs14. What is a neuron? What are neuroglial cells?Neuron- cells responsible for the actions of the nervous systemNeuroglial cells- support and bind the components of nervous tissue, carry on phagocytosis, and connect neurons to blood vesselsChapter 6 – Skin and Integumentary System1. What is the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layers? What are the functions of each?Epidermis- superficial outer layer of skin; protects dermis
Dermis- deep inner layer; contains blood supply, nervous and lymphatic tissuesSubcutaneous layers- layer under the skin that contains the connective tissue2. What pigments are used in determining skin color? What are the names of the cells that produce some of these pigments?Melanin made by melanocytes3. What is the arrector pili muscle?A bundle of smooth muscle cells connected to each hair follicle that causes the follicle to stand on end (goosebumps)4. What is the sebaceous gland?Group of specialized epithelial cells usually associated with hair follicles that secrete sebum5. What is the difference between apocrine and eccrine sweat glands?Apocrine- found in axillary regions and active at puberty, released into hair follicleEccrine- aka merocrine, most numerous, regulate temperature, released from pore6. What is hypothermia? Hyperthermia? What are the body responses to each?Hypothermia- core temp below 95F; shivering and vasoconstrictionHyperthermia- core temp more than 101F; sweating and vasodilation