Receptive Language
Refers to the ability to understand language. (Ability to understand speech, written text, and/or the elements of a sign language).
Expressive Language
Refers to the ability to express oneself using language. (Ability to speak, write, and/or sign).
Phonology
Refers to speech sounds.
Phoneme
Each phoneme in s language consists of a distinct sound used to distinguish spoken words in the language. The English language contains 45 phonemes.
Semantic
Refers to the MEANING of parts of words, words, sentences, and larger units. Vocabulary acquisition is an important part of semantic development, involving changes in both expressive and receptive language.
Grammar
Refers to rules that govern the structure of language. Grammar can be further divided into 2 systems of rules, syntax and morphology.
Syntax
Pertains to rules governing the placement of words in phrases, clauses, and sentences. (Example: “Steve here is now” should be “Steve is here now”).
Morphology
Refers to rules governing the use of MORPHEMES, the smallest parts of words that contribute to meaning. In English, for example, the verb, “learn” takes on somewhat different meanings depending on whether we refer to someone as “relearning,” “unlearning,” “learning,” or “having learned,” because the prefixes “re-” and “un-” and the suffixes “-ing” and “-ed” each modify the basic meaning of the verb. These prefixes and suffixes are morphemes. Also ending words with “s” to make them plural is as well.
Pragmatics
Defined as whatever contributes to meaning over and above the literal meaning of the words that are used.
Contextual information often provides important clues to meaning.
Differing tones of voice often convey important differences in meaning.
When language is used in a figurative way, as in the case of metaphor or analogy, the intended meaning of a phrase differs from the literal meaning.
There are many conventions governing word choice in communicative contexts, such as how much information to convey, or what level of formality is needed.
Orthography
Refers to the system of representing oral language in writing. Rules of orthography pertain to spelling, punctuation, capitalization, use of hyphens, and so on.
Motor Speech Disorders
Reflect anatomical or physiological limitations in the physical mechanisms used to produce speech. The 2 general categories of motor speech disorders are dysarthria and apraxia.
Dysarthria
Is a weakness or paralysis of the musculature that controls speech, typically resulting from illness or injury. May include excessively rapid or slow rate of speech, distorted vowels, unmodulated pitch and/or word flow, overly nasal speech, and so on.
Apraxia
Is an impairment in the ability to translate speech plans into actual speech. Children know what they wish to say but their brains do not readily translate planned speech to the necessary movements of lips, tongue, and other parts of the speech apparatus.
CAS-Childhood Apraxia of Speech
If the apraxia is not the result of illness or injury. Children will show language delays and other abnormalities beginning in infancy.
Articulation Disorders
Are reflected in difficulties producing certain speech sounds. (Example-a child who says “wight” when attempting to say “right”).
Fluency Disorders
Are reflected in difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech. Two examples are stuttering and cluttering.
Stuttering
A problem in which speech is disrupted by involuntary pauses, also known as blocks, as well as repetitions and/or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases.
Cluttering
A problem in which speaking rate is unusually fast and/or irregular.
Voice Disorders
Are manifest as difficulties in producing language sounds of appropriate quality, pitch, and/or loudness.
Phonation Disorders
Result in excessive hoarseness, raspiness, sudden changes in volume, and/or sudden changes in pitch while speaking.
Resonance Disorders
Result in either too much or too little nasal emission of air while speaking.
Language Impairments
Can be discerned when children have difficulties in expressing their thoughts, needs or feelings, and/or in understanding what others say. Three of the main types of language impairments are phonological disorders, expressive language disorders, and mixed receptive-expressive language disorders.
Phonological Disorders
Refers to impairments in the ability to distinguish specific phonemes. They can be classified as impairments of language rather than speech. Children are limited to specific sounds.
SLI-Specific Language Impairment or Expressive Language Disorders
Refers to expressive language abilities that are much lower than expected for age, although mental functioning and receptive language skills falls within the normal range. A child with an expressive language disorder is likely to have difficulty expressing themselves with anything more than a few words or simple sentences.
Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorders
Refers to a disorder in which both receptive and expressive language abilities are affected.
Directed Interventions
Are structured learning activities in which the professional responsible for the intervention models speech, prompts the child for specific responses, and offers incentives for desired responses.
Naturalistic Interventions
Are activities carried out in day-to-day settings in which the professional responsible for the intervention makes use of opportunities for the child to learn.
Content-Based Instruction
Involves teaching language and content simultaneously. It prompts students interest, because it breaks down artificial barriers between content areas and because it reinforces learning by making connections between content areas.
Task-Based Instruction
Involves the teaching of language by means of age-appropriate tasks that require meaningful communication. It promotes student interest and engagement, because it breaks down artificial barriers between language and communication, and because it fosters authentic use of language in meaningful communicative contexts.
Assistive Technology
Refers to any device that maintains or improves the functioning of individuals with disabilities.
Alternative Communication System
Refers to any system of communication other than the conventional natural language systems of reading, writing, hearing, and speech.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication
Is often used to describe a broader category of methods that includes both assistive technologies and alternative communication systems.
Braille
Consists of raised dots that represent letters, numbers, and punctuation marks.
Screen Readers
Read aloud text that is presented on a computer screen, including the main text as well as “extras” such as drop-down menus and dialog boxes.
Digital Book Readers
Read books aloud and provide numerous interactive features.
Scan/Read Systems
Allows printed materials to be scanned and then read aloud.
Screen Magnification Software
Allows the user to magnify all or part of what is presented on a computer screen.
Hearing Technologies
Enhances the volume and quality of spoken language and other sounds.
Assistive Listening Devices
Increase volume as well as minimize the effects of background noise, the acoustics of the surrounding room, and so on. These devices can be used by individuals or groups.
Personal Amplification Devices
Such as hearing aids increase the quality of sound for individuals.
Alerting Devices
Are designed to gain the attention of an individual by means of an amplified sound, flashing light, or vibration.
Communication Supports
Consist of technologies that facilitate communication among students who are deaf or hearing-impaired.
Sign Language
An alternative communication system that is used by many children who are deaf or have significant hearing Impairments.
ASL-American Sign Language
Represents a distinct natural language, with rules of semantics, grammar, and pragmatics that are largely independent of spoken English.
Communication Boards
Allow students to choose among photos, pictures, or symbols arranged on a board.
Voice Output Communication Aids
Also known as “speech-generating devices”) are devices that produce speech.
Concepts of Print
The concept that the words in a picture book convey stories, and the concept that these words are printed in an orderly, linear way (such that people read from top to bottom, and from left to right).
Alphabet Knowledge
The ability to name the letters of the alphabet and recognize these letters in print.
Alphabetic Principle
The understanding that letters represent sounds in systematic and predictable ways.
Phonological Awareness
The ability to consciously recognize, discriminate among, and manipulate language sounds such as phonemes and syllables. Put simply, knowledge of the relationship between spoken and written words (alphabetic principle) supports and is in turn supported by awareness that spoken words are composed of units of sound (phonological awareness).
Decoding
The sounding out of words.
Sight Words
High-frequency words that are recognized automatically, such as, “you,” “and,” “the”.
Fluency
The ability to read quickly, effortlessly, accurately, and expressively.
Core Reading Program
The basic program for teaching reading in the general education classroom.
Supplemental Reading Program
Are used to supplement a core reading program . Does not replace the core program but rather supports and extends the core.
Intensive Intervention Programs
Are intended to support students with reading difficulties. These programs may focus on one, several, or all components of reading. The goal of these programs is for students to be functioning at grade level.
RTI-Response To Intervention
A school-wide, multi-level approach to identifying students at risk for reading difficulties and other problems, monitoring student progress, and providing interventions to students who need them.
Dyslexia
Considered a learning disability that primarily affects reading. Individuals with dyslexia read at a level much lower than would be expected, given that their intelligence is at least normal.
Developmental Dyslexia
Dyslexia that can be observed in early childhood.
Alexia
Dyslexia that is acquired as a result of disease or injury to the brain.
Pre-Alphabetic
Children can identify words, but they do so by treating words as visual objects, rather than by applying letter-sound associations. Example: a child that reads “stop” on a stop sign.
Partial-Alphabetic
Children know some letters and letter-sound associations and can use them, along with contextual cues such as the visual appearance of words, to engage in decoding. Example: a child that can read the word “bat” because they know how “b” and “t” sound.
Full-Alphabetic
Children apply alphabet knowledge systematically when decoding, and they often decode words LETTER BY LETTER.
Consolidated-Alphabetic
Recurring letter patterns become consolidated. Rather than sounding out words letter by letter, children recognize that certain groups of letters function as units.
Phonemic Awareness
Defined as the ability to consciously recognize, discriminate among, and manipulate phonemes.
Grapho-Phonemic Knowledge
Is another word for the alphabetic principle, which is the understanding that letters represent sounds in systematic and predictable ways.
Digraphs
Pairs of letters that represent a single sound, such as “sh” and “oo.”
Consonant Clusters
Pairs of consonants that appear together in a syllable. In the word “charts,” the “ts” is a consonant cluster.
Syllables
Units of pronunciation containing one vowel sound.
Rimes
The parts of syllables consisting of the vowel and any consonant that follows. Example: “og” in the word “dog” and “ank” in the “bank.”
Onsets
The parts of syllables that precede the vowel. Example: “d” in “dog” or “b” in “bank.”
Free Morphemes
Can stand alone as words. Example: the word “fire” serves as a morpheme in words such as “fireworks,” “bonfire,” and “firefly.”
Bound Morphemes
Cannot stand alone as words. Examples: “re,” “anti,” and “un.”
Structural Analysis
Refers to the reader’s use of knowledge about morphemes to help recognize familiar words, pronounce familiar as well as new words, and understand the meanings of new words. Example: a child can decode the word “untested” in a story more quickly as result of familiarity with the prefix “un” and the suffix “ed.”
Word Walls
Organized lists of words placed on the wall of a classroom.
Word Banks
Consists of collections of words stored in one place (index cards, small box) that students can use for reading practice, for consultation when writing, and so on.
Word Games
Structured activities that allows children to make use of words they are learning.
Repeated Readings
Promote fluency by allowing students to read the same passage more than once.
Timed Readings
Repeated readings in which the amount of time spent reading each passage is recorded, and targets are set for subsequent passages.
Read-Alouds
Involves reading texts out loud to children.
Choral Reading
Occurs when an entire class or group of students read together in unison, with or without the teacher.
Word Analysis
Students use knowledge of the parts of new words to help determine word meanings.
Contextual Analysis
Students use information from the context in which a new word appears to help determine, or make a reasonable guess about the meaning. The meaning of the word may be stated. The meaning of the word may be indicated through comparison or contrast. The meaning of the word may be indicated by means of a synonym or antonym.
Graphic Organizers
Visual representations of concepts and facts as well as relationships between them. Examples: Venn diagrams, flow charts, cause-and-effect diagrams, story maps, and so on.
Semantic Organizer
A type of graphic organizer consisting of a central concept, to which related concepts are linked by means of branching lines.
Comprehension Monitoring
Refers to the reader’s ongoing awareness of whether the text makes sense or not. The reader keeps track of how well they understand the text, and makes notes of characteristics. A form of metacognition.
Metacognition
Thinking about one’s own knowledge, mental capacities, and thought processes. Example: reflecting on what you have learned from a text and how well you understand it, recognizing the steps by which you drew conclusions from the text, and making note of gaps in your knowledge about the text.
Reciprocal Teaching
Allows students to play the role of teacher and engages them in the conscious use of the 4 strategies during reading: Prediction, Questioning, Clarification, and Summarization.
Phonics
Refers to a family of instructional methods designed to teach children letter-sound correspondences and to help them use these correspondences during the process of decoding.
Explicit Phonics Instruction
Proceeds from PART TO WHOLE, in the sense that children are first instructed about letters and letter-sound correspondences and then taught how to blend sounds into syllables and words.
Implicit Phonics Instruction
Proceeds from WHOLE TO PART, in the sense that children are taught whole words and then learn how to analyze words into consistent parts, including syllables and letters.
An exceptional student education teacher provides reading instruction to a small group of second-grade students. Each student has Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals related to increasing their sight word vocabulary and fluency. Which of the following assessment procedures should the teacher use to monitor the students’ progress toward these goals?
reviewing data on each student’s reading accuracy and speed on a graph weekly
The ability to read a restaurant logo is one of the first literacy accomplishments of a preschool child. This happens in which development of word learning?
pre-alphabetic phase
When children can unlock the pronunciation of unknown words they are in the
A. pre-alphabetic phase.
B. partial-alphabetic phase.
C. full-alphabetic phase.
D. consolidated-alphabetic phase.
C
What can be done at the pre-alphabetic stage?
recognize words on sight due to visual or contextual cues
What can be done at the partial-alphabetic stage?
some letter knowledge and finding letter-sound relationships
What can be done at the consolidated-alphabetic stage?
readers can segment the words and analyze multi syllabic words
The correspondence between letters and sounds is known as
grapho-phonemic (letters = graphemes; sounds=phonemes)
What is the difference between “morphemic” and “semantic” correspondences?
Morphemic is a combination of sounds that have meaning
Semantic refers to the study of the meaning of words in a language
Researchers who have studied children’s acquisition of English grammatical morphemes have found that
most children acquire morphemes in roughly the same order.
Which of the following best practices would be most beneficial for a middle school student struggling with fluency?
A. Fluency Development Lesson (FDL)
B. support reading strategy
C. cross-age reading
D. oral recitation
C (a lesson cycle that includes modeling by the teacher, discussing the text, supplying opportunities for practicing reading the text, and reading the text to younger children)
What activity would best teach vocabulary acquisition in depth?
restating the definition in the student’s own words
Apple is to fruit as carrot is to vegetable is an example of a(n)
analogy
Reflecting on what you have learned from a text and how well you understand it is an example of
metacognition
If a student decodes words through regular letter patterns such as dish, fish, wish, swish, which phonics instruction is the teacher using?
linguistic (refers to learning to decode words through regular letter patterns)
What is the term for a part to whole phonics approach?
Synthetic
What two terms refer to whole to part approaches to word study?
implicit and analytic
Jim is a seven-year-old who often has difficulty communicating about topics that are not in his immediate environment. For example, while trying to describe his weekend trip with his family to an amusement park, he couldn’t remember the words for roller coaster or Ferris wheel, so he called them the “fast thing” and the “round thing.” Based on this information, with which aspect of language does Jim have difficulty?
semantics (Jim is having trouble finding the exact word that is associated with “Ferris Wheel.” )
Sandra is a third grader who often uses nonspecific words (e.g., thing, stuff) for specific words. Sandra most likely has a
word-finding problem
When planning a language program for students with delayed language skills, begin by
determining what knowledge and skills a student has already acquired.
Which type of intervention is delivered to persons who do not yet show signs of a communication disorder?
prevention
Conventional word-processing programs, closed captioning, and text telephones for students who are deaf or hearing impaired are considered what?
communication supports
Which concept is found in the pre-reading stage of reading development?
concepts of print
Differentiated small-group reading lessons are characterized by
the use of different text and activity levels for each group.
When students frequently read orally and face criticism for being incorrect, they
pay little attention to meaning.
Recent, widely accepted research on reading instruction indicates that
phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondences are crucial
Progress monitoring students with curriculum-based measures allows teachers to
revise the intervention if it is ineffective.
Which form of assessment is designed to identify students’ reading strengths and weaknesses?
diagnostic
An initial evaluation has been completed on a fourth-grade student who has been struggling in mathematics. Based on the student’s present level of educational performance, the Individualized Education Program (IEP) team finds the student eligible for exceptional education services. Which of the following components must be included in the students’ IEP?
A. a detailed plan for fully supporting the student’s upcoming transition to fifth grade
B. a description of how the team plans to monitor the student’s progress
C. a statement naming a designated service coordinator to implement the program
D. a statement reflecting the family’s desired academic outcome for the student
B
A sixth-grade student with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is having significant difficulty getting started on a long-term writing assignment given by her English language arts teacher. The student tells her exceptional student education resource room teacher that she feels overwhelmed by the assignment, cannot find any information about the topic, and thinks she might not write the report. Which of the following responses from the exceptional student education teacher would likely be most effective in this situation?
working with the student and the English language arts teacher to break down the assignment into smaller, more manageable parts
A middle school English language arts (ELA) teacher comes to the exceptional student education teacher for advice about Ana, a student with a learning disability in writing. The ELA teacher says that while Ana writes fluently and has many original ideas, her inattention to punctuation makes her work difficult to read. The exceptional student education teacher has worked with Ana on punctuation and seen significant improvement on exercises and drills in the resource room. The exceptional student education teacher’s best response would be to suggest that the ELA teacher
hold Ana accountable for punctuation errors when grading her work, as articulated in the IEP.
What is true about frequent signs of reading problems?
Sight word knowledge is limited
What is true about findings related to reading disabilities in children and their relation to other subjects?
finger recognition difficulty is related
Children with reading disabilities are more likely to also have delays in what?
spoken language, writing and math
What early activity is best for teaching young children print awareness?
mnemonic devices (turning letters into related pictures)
When students can recognize letter combinations (like /str/ or /ough/, they have reached what level of of Ehri’s phases of sight word recognition?
consolidated
What level of Ehri’s phases are students at when they can easily differentiate between “mat” “mart” “mate” etc?
full alphabetic
What is true about students who read well?
they make hypotheses, idea synthesize and make conclusions
In core activities to teach phonological awareness, what would typically be introduced first? Phoneme_______
blending
Phonemic drills are most appropriate for remediating what?
articulation disorders
What is an example of shared reading?
reader’s theater
What is true about literacy?
The literacy demands of society have changed over time
A student who is nonverbal and has an orthopedic impairment is ready for augmentative communication evaluation when the student has
Choose an answer
A. established vocalization patterns.
B. learned to read.
C. developed communicative intent.
D. discriminated sounds.
C
An 11-year-old student attends an inclusive 5th-grade classroom. The student’s expressive language skills and reading skills are significantly lower than those of classmates. The student refuses to read from appropriate grade-level books and materials because “They are too hard” or “This stuff doesn’t interest me—it’s boring.” What linguistically sound strategy should the student’s teacher use?
Choose an answer
A. a language experience approach
B. a rebus symbol method
C. precision teaching
D. augmentative communication
A
Poor listening skills have frequently been identified as a receptive language deficit for ESE students. Which of the following pairs of strategies would be most appropriate for a teacher to employ when communicating instructions?
Choose an answer
A. using short and clear directions; pairing spoken messages with visual stimuli
B. using a question-and-answer technique; previewing work sample sheets
C. using visual stimuli; reminding students to listen carefully
D. using positive reinforcers; modeling by role-playing
A