Purpose of Scientific Method
solve a problem or answer a question
Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Observe & Record, Analyze, Conclude
steps of scientific method
Independent variable
a variable that stands alone and isn’t changed by the other variables you are trying to measure, change or controlled
example: age
dependent variable
a variable dependent on other factors, tested or measured
example: test score – factors that go into a score you receive on a test
control group
does not receive treatment and used to compare or measure the other subjects
experimental group
exposed to changes in independent variable
anatomy
branch of science concerned with bodily structure of living organisms; structure
physiology
science dealing with the functions of living things or their organs
level of organization
living things arranged from the simplest to most complex are:
organelle
cells
tissues
organs
organ systems, organism
populations communities
ecosystem
biosphere
requirements for life
Cellular organization
Reproduction
Metabolism
Homeostasis
Heredity
Response to stimuli
Growth and development
Adaptation through evolution
survival needs
Food, oxygen, water, body temperature, atmospheric pressure (oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange)
homeostasis
relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions that organisms maintain
receptor
senses environmental stimulus and sends info to control center
control center
hypothalamus
signals effector
effector
responds to stimuli
example: muscle contracting
negative feedback mechanisms
net effect is that the original output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces the intensity
homeostasis
negative feedback mechanisms
most common form of homeostasis, bringing people back to normal functioning
negative feedback mechanisms
example of homeostasis: adjustments of blood pressure, metabolism, body temp
positive feedback mechanisms
form of homeostasis
level of variable changes in same direction as initial change
enhances or accelerates output created by activated stimulus
positive feedback mechanisms
example of type of homeostasis: platelet aggregation or accumulation in response to injury, child birth
anatomical position
erect position, face forward, arms at side, palms face forward
used to describe relation to other things
coronal, sagittal, transverse
3 major planes of dissection
cranial
brain body region
spinal/vertebral
spinal cord body region
thoracic cavity
lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus
abdominal cavity
stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, small/large intestines, kidneys
pleural cavity
contains lungs
pelvic cavity
end of large intestines, urinary bladder, reproductive organs
mediastinum
seperates lungs
pericardial
contains heart
axial
head, neck, and trunk of body
appendicular
limbs
electron
negatively charged particle, outer shell
proton
positive, in nucleus
number of protons
number of electrons is equal to the same…
number of protons
atomic number is equal to…
atomic mass
sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
the weighted average mass of isotopes of an element, found below the element symbol
ionic bond
chemical bond formed between two ions that are opposite charges, atom gives up one or more electrons to another atom
covalent bond
sharing electron pairs between atoms
polar covalent bond
pair of electrons unequally shared between two atoms
nonpolar covalent bond
two atoms share a pair of electrons with each other
hydrogen bond
weak bond result of attraction between proton and electronegative atom of another
enzymes
catalyze chemical reactions by lowering activation energy barriers and converting substrate molecules to products
substrate
reactant acted upon by an enzyme
enzymes active site binds to this
active site
part of an enzyme to which substrates bind and where a reaction is catalyzed
enzymes
promote chemical reactions by bringing substrates together in an optimal orientation, thus creating an ideal chemical environment for the reaction to occur
always return to original state
decomposition
single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds
These reactions often involve heat, light, electricity
synthesis
multiple reactants combine to form a single product
Release energy in form of heat and light (exothermic)
Hydrogen and oxygen -> water
exchange
any class of reactions between two substances that involves an exchange of one or more ionic components (positive and negative charges)
solvent
substance solute is dissolved in
polar molecule
a molecule that has electrically charged areas
covalent bonds – polarity if its atoms differ in electronegativity
can form hydrogen bonds
nonpolar molecule
cannot mix with water
dissociation
leads to acidic and basic conditions
the splitting of a molecule into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions, especially by a reversible process
PH
measure of acidity
measure of hydrogen ion concentration
basic/alkaline
if pH is above 7 it is…
acidic
if pH is below 7 its…
diffusion
Movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
dialysis
small molecules can diffuse through semipermeable membranes
osmosis
net movement of water through semipermeable membrane
organic compound
any member of large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds, must contain hydrogen
monomer
small unit that can join together with other small units to form polymers
polymer
large compound formed from combinations of many monomers
carbohydrates
glucose, glycogen, monosaccharides, polysaccharides
lipids
fatty acids, alcohols, monoglycerides, diglycerides, steroids, terpenes, carotenoids
proteins
insulin, histone, hemoglobin
macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
nucelic acid
RNA, DNA
function
_____ of a protein is dependent on its 3D structure determined by a sequence of amino acids in the protein polymer
proteins
embodiment of the transition from one-dimensional to three
cell theory
All life is made up cells which are the basic units of life and come from preexisting cells
requirements of cell life
ribosomes
makes proteins
golgi apparatus
make, process, and package proteins
lysosome
contains digestive enzymes to help break down food
endoplasmic reticulum
“intracellular highway” transports item around the cell, creates lipids of fat
mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
nucleus
brains of the cell, directs cell activity and contains genetic material called chromosomes made of DNA
cytoplasm
jellylike substance inside cells that contains molecules and in some cell organelles
Translation and glycolysis takes place
cisternae
flattened stacked membrane folds
liposome
membrane bound transport vescicles
chloroplast
creates glucose
photosynthesis
G0
not growing or dividing
G1
cell growth, cellular contents (not chromosomes) duplicated
S
each of the 46 chromosomes duplicated by cell
DNA synthesis (replication)
G2
“double checks” the duplicated chromosomes for error and makes repairs
cell growth (interphase, 46 chromosomes)
mitosis
a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth
prophase
chromosomes doubled
condensation of chromatin, nucleolus disappears
metaphase
second most condensed and coiled phase, chromosomes align in the equator of the cell before being separated into daughter cells
anaphase
most condensed and coiled, chromatids split and move to opposite poles of the cell
separated chromosomes pulled apart
telophase
microtubules disappear all division begins
two nuclei are formed at opposite ends
cytokinesis
separation of cell components, two daughter cells formed each with 46 chromosomes
most condensed and coiled, chromatids split and move to opposite poles of the cell
anterior
at or near the front of the body
posterior
at or near the back of the body
midline
an imaginary vertical line that divides the body equally
lateral
farther from midline
side view
medial
nearer to midline
side view
superior
toward the head/upper part of a structure
looking down
inferior
away from head or lower part of a structure
looking up
superficial
close to the surface of the body
deep
away from surface of the body
proximal
nearer to the origination of a structure
distal
farther from the origination of a structure
coronal plane
frontal plane
A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior portions.
sagittal plane
lateral plane
A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides
axial plane
transverse plane
A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts
median plane
Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves
atomic structure
steps of mitosis
DNA
double-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar deoxyribose
DNA
made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines its instructions, or genetic code
DNA replication
process of copying DNA molecules
cell cycle
sequence of events from the production of a eukaryotic cell to the time the cell itself reproduces
transcription
the process by which DNA is copied to RNA
translation
RNA is used to produce proteins
aerobic pathway
process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen
occurs in the mitochondria of the cell and is used for activities requiring sustained energy production
anaerobic glycolysis
breakdown of glucose that occurs in the absence of oxygen
cellular respiration
set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. … Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity
glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport
3 major steps of aerobic respiration
glycolysis
breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid
Krebs cycle
the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP
electron transport
A group of compounds that pass electron from one to another via redox reactions coupled with the transfer of proton across a membrane to create a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis
compound light microscope
