Which of the following best describes the reaction NaNO3 + HCl → HNO3 + NaCl?
exchange reaction
The function of the association area in the frontal lobe is
higher intellectual processes, such as reasoning and judgment.
Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by __________ and it __________.
choroid plexuses in the ventricles; protects the brain from blows to the skull
The anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration occur in the __________ , whereas the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration occur in the __________ .
cytoplasm without O2 required; mitochondria with O2 required
A pole vaulter keeps track of his position in mid-air through
proprioceptors
Epithelial tissue functions in
secretion, absorption, and protection.
Receptors for the special senses are found
primarily in the head
Which of the following lists the parts of a reflex arc in the correct sequence?
Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector
Epidermis is __________, whereas dermis is __________.
composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue; composed of connective tissue, smooth muscle, and nerve cell processes
Cartilage tissues are likely to be slow in healing following an injury because
chondrocytes do not have direct blood supplies.
Most of the joints between the short bones in the ankle and wrist are
plane joints
The muscular system is responsible for body movements, maintenance of posture, and production of body heat.
true
Chemistry deals with
the composition and changes of substances that make up living as well as non-living matter.
The __________ is the thin meninx attached to the surface of the brain, containing many nerves and blood vessels.
pia mater
The three borders of the scapula are called
the superior, lateral, and medial borders.
The three borders of the scapula are called
long bone
Action potentials are related to impulses conducted along an axon in that
propagation of a series of action potentials along a nerve fiber constitutes an impulse.
For which of the following organelles are the structure and function correctly described?
Endoplasmic reticulum—a network of interconnected membranes forming sacs and canals that packages protein molecules for secretion
In what molecule are codons found?
mRNA
The movement of molecules through a membrane by filtration requires
hydrostatic pressure
What is the relationship of osmotic pressure to the number of solute particles in a solution?
The greater the number of impermeant solute particles, the greater the osmotic pressure.
Macromolecules are built of atoms.
true
The consequence of sensory nerve fibers crossing over is that the
right hemisphere of the cerebrum receives sensory impulses originating on the left side of the body and vice versa.
Bones of a synovial joint are held together by
joint capsule
The functional connection between a neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber is a
synapse
If the area of the cerebral hemisphere corresponding to Broca’s area is damaged,
motor control of the muscles associated with speech is lost.
Eccrine sweat glands
respond primarily to elevated body temperature.
The intestines are innervated by both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. During a meal, the __________ division activates digestion and slows heart rate. During exercise, the __________ division slows digestion and increases heart rate.
parasympathetic; sympathetic
Masses of myelinated nerve fibers appear
white
Blood with excess oxygen causes cyanosis.
false
While examining a sample of muscle tissue under a microscope, you notice that the cells are multinucleated. They are long, unbranched, striated, and contain a developed transverse tubule system. Which muscle type does this sample contain?
skeletal muscle
When K+ and Cl- meet, they will
from KCL with an ionic bond
Myelin
consists of layers of lipids and proteins that wrap around an axon.
The functional unit of muscle contraction is
the sarcomere
The color receptors in the retina are most sensitive to light waves that are
red, green, and blue
The act of closing the fingers to make a fist is an example of what type of joint movement (at the interphalangeal joints)?
flexion
Cell membranes are described as a fluid mosaic that maintains stability while still allowing movement. What component maintains most of the flexibility of the membrane?
phospholipid bilayer
A mutation can cause disease if
the DNA sequence changes so that one amino acid is substituted for another in a way that affects the encoded protein’s functioning.
When the body is placed in the anatomical position, which of the following is not true?
The palms are facing backward.
Stereoscopic vision results when the
images in the eyes are different
Which of the following is not a function of the hypothalamus?
control of postural reflexes
During metaphase of mitosis, chromosomes first condense and become visible when stained and viewed under a microscope.
false
A soldier suffers a brain injury, and becomes unable to speak. The damage is likely in
Broca’s area
Rotation of the forearms so the palms face upward is called pronation.
false
The origin of the term “anatomy” is related to
the Greek word for “cutting up.”
The muscle that adducts and flexes the arm is the
coracobrachialis
A motor unit is
a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
If a person contracted meningitis (an inflammation of the meninges due to infection), which specific nervous structures would be inflamed and swollen?
The pia mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of
brain and spinal cord
Treatment for a cataract is usually removal of the
lens
The genetic code is
the correspondence between a sequence of three DNA nucleotides and a specific amino acid.
Myofibrils are composed primarily of
actin and myosin
Transverse tubules
transmit muscle impulses into the cell interior.
A ball-and-socket joint is also called an ellipsoidal joint.
false
The soft part of the nose and the supporting rings of the respiratory passages are composed of fibrocartilage.
false
Every neuron has
cell body
Transmitting an impulse from one neuron to another involves a(n)
impulse stimulating a presynaptic axon to release a neurotransmitter into a synaptic cleft.
Which of the nitrogenous bases is part of DNA, but not RNA?
thymine
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids.
true
In an ionic bond
oppositely charged atoms attract.
Which of the following processes is most important to the continuation of the human species?
reproduction
The __________ separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
transverse fissure
pain receptors
respond to factors that can damage tissue.
It is possible to determine if a child’s long bone is growing by examining a radiograph of the bone and looking for a(n)
epiphyseal plate
A person is exposed to a drug that prevents vesicles from forming in neurons. Predict the effect this will have on nerve function.
Neurotransmitters won’t be released into the synapse via exocytosis.
A tooth root attached to a jawbone by a periodontal ligament is a __________ .
gomphosis
A molecule that carries energy in a form the cell can use is
ATP
Which of the following lists best illustrates the idea of increasing levels of complexity?
Organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems
The tissue through which gases are exchanged between the blood and the air in the lungs is
simple squamous epithelium
Golgi tendon organs are stimulated more when
you are straining a muscle hard and causing increased tension.
Which of the following is characteristic of carbohydrates?
All of the answer choices are correct.
The process by which cells specialize is called differentiation.
true
The femur
is the longest bone in the body
If the sinus cavities located within the skull were instead completely filled with bone, the skull would be much heavier.
true
A test organism develops a genetic mutation that causes neurons to develop without synaptic knobs. How will this impact neuronal function?
No neurotransmitters will be released into the synapse to signal the postsynaptic neuron, as the synaptic knob is where they are stored.
Which of the following bone shape is stated with an incorrect example?
flat bone- thigh bone
Sensory receptors include
baroreceptors
Which of the following is not a primary taste sensation?
pungent
Which of the following characteristics is used to name tissue types?
organization of cells
Which of the following describes the epidermis?
all of the answer choices are correct
The most rapid conduction of an impulse along an axon occurs on a fiber that is
thick and myelinated.
If a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution,
the cell will swell and may eventually burst.
The increase in the number of motor units activated as a result of more intense stimulation is called
recruitment
The types of neurons that are organized into neuronal pools are
interneurons
Matter is composed of elements, which are composed of __________.
atoms
Sweat cools the body by
evaporation
Joints are also called
articulations
A protein is formed from a sequence of amino acids.
true
Osteoclasts are bone-resorbing cells, whereas osteoblasts are bone-forming cells.
true
Receptors for the general senses are found
widely distributed throughout the body.
Humans require vitamins in their diets because these nutrients
act as coenzymes
Nerve fibers scattered throughout the dermis are associated with
muscles, glands, and sensory receptors.
The major components of the cell membrane are
lipids and proteins
Most of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord are
multipolar
Histology is the study of
tissues
How do pain receptors differ from other somatic receptors?
they adapt very little, if at all
Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters by _________.
exocytosis
The term anabolic metabolism refers to
biochemical reactions that synthesize compounds.
Homeostasis is the body’s maintenance of an unstable internal environment.
false
The nail plate is produced by
specialized epithelial cells
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, whereas physiology is the study of the function of body parts
What are the levels of organization?
subatomic particles, atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
What are the requirements of life?
Water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure
What are the characteristics of life?
Movement (internal or gross); Responsiveness (reaction to internal or external change); Growth (increase in size without change in shape); Reproduction (new organisms or new cells); Respiration (use of oxygen; removal of CO2); Digestion (breakdown of food); Absorption (movement of substances through membranes and into fluids); Circulation (movement within body fluids); Assimilation (changing nutrients into chemically different forms); Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes)
Define homeostasis
Body’s maintenance of a stable environment
What is a homeostatic mechanism?
the body maintains homeostasis through a number of self-regulating control systems; examples are regulating body temperature and pressure sensitive receptors to regulate body pressure
Define matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass (weight). It is composed of elements.
Define element
fundamental substance composed of chemically identical atoms
Define atoms
smallest particle of an element; basic unit of matter
What is the structure of an atom?
An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons in
Atomic nucleus
the nucleus contains protons and neutrons
Proton
subatomic particle that has a positive charge
Neutron
subatomic particle that has no charge
Electron
subatomic particle that has a negative charge
Atomic number
number or protons in nucleus
Atomic mass
number of protons plus number of neutrons
What are covalent bonds?
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to become stable with filled
What are ionic bonds?
2 oppositely charged atoms form this bond when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom
What are hydrogen bonds?
Weak attraction between positive end of one polar molecule and negative end of another polar molecule; formed between water molecules
Define ion
When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions.
Define synthesis reaction
Two or more atoms or molecules are joined together
Define decomposition reaction
Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones
Define exchange reaction
Parts of molecules trade places
Define reactant
The starting materials of the reaction – the atoms, ions, or molecules
Define product
Substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction
Define catalyst
influence the rates of chemical reactions
What is an acid?
Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water
What is a base?
Electrolytes that release ions that combine with hydrogen ions in water
What is a salt?
Acids and bases that react to form water and electrolytes
What is a pH scale?
represents the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in solution
Neutral solution
pH 7; indicates equal concentrations of H+ and OH-
Acidic solution
pH less than 7; indicates a greater concentration of H+
Basic solution
pH greater than 7; indicates a greater concentration of OH-
What is the difference between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule?
organic compounds have hydrogen and carbon; inorganic compounds do not
What is dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?
Dehydration reactions link monomers together into polymers by releasing water, and hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers using a water molecule. Monomers are just single unit molecules and polymers are chains of monomers.
What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates provide energy for cellular activities. These molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
What are lipids?
Primarily used to supply energy for cellular activity. Lipids are insoluble in water and include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
What are proteins?
Provide structure; energy sources; chemical messengers
What are nucleic acids?
Carry genes and control cell activities. Examples are RNA and DNA.
Fats (triglycerides)
Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
phospholipids
major component of cell membranes; large amounts in nervous system
steroids
4 connected rings of carbon atoms; widely distributed in body; component of cell membrane; used to synthesize hormones; example includes cholesterol
Define amino acids
building block of proteins
What are enzymes?
large molecules that increase the rates of chemical reactions without themselves undergoing any change
What are the differences between DNA and RNA?
RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein synthesis; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the molecular code in genes.
cell membrane
regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell; participates in signal transduction; and helps cells adhere to other cells
nucleus
surrounded by an enveloper; composed of RNA and protein and is the site of ribosome production
cytoplasm
consists of a clear liquid (cytosol), a supportive cytoskeleton, and networks of membranes and organelles
cytosol
the liquid part of the cytoplasm in which various organelles are suspended
organelles
small, specialized structures in cells which operate like organs by carrying out specific tasks
What are the functions of the cell membrane?
controls the movement of substances in and out of cells; protects the cell from its surroundings
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
a double layer of phospholipids, with fatty acid tails turned inward
Ribosome
tiny spherical structures composed of protein and RNA; the site of protein synthesis
endoplasmic reticulum
the manufacturing plant; responsible for synthesis of proteins and lipids for use inside and outside the cell
Difference between smooth ER and rough ER.
With ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is rough ER, and functions in protein synthesis. Without ribosomes, it is smooth ER, and functions in lipid synthesis.
Golgi apparatus
UPS or FedEx; packages and modifies proteins for transport and export out of the cell
Mitochondria
the powerhouses of the cell and
Lysosome
“garbage disposals” of the cell and contain
Peroxisome
contain enzymes that function in the synthesis of
Centrosome
structure made up of two hollow cylinders called centrioles that function in the separation of chromosomes during cell division
Cilia
motile extensions from the cell
Flagella
long, thin, whip-like structures, with a core of microtubules, that enable some cells to move
Vesicle
small, membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell
nuclear envelope
a double-layered porous membrane; separates the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm
nuclear pores
regulate molecular traffic through the envelope and act like a rivet to hold the two unit membranes together
nucleolus
The site of ribosome production; composed of RNA and protein
chromatin
It condenses into chromosomes during cell division; it is made of protein and DNA
diffusion
the movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to one of lesser concentration until equilibrium is reached
osmosis
transport mechanism in which water molecules move through a selectively permeable membrane toward the solution with more impermeant solute
facilitated diffusion
a process ions use to move down their concentration gradient across the plasma membrane
filtration
passive transport mechanism in which smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure
active transport
a carrier molecule transports substances from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration
endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
active transport mechanism in which molecules or particles are conveyed by a vesicle in the cell
transcytosis
the transport of macromolecular cargo from one side of a cell to the other within a membrane-bounded carrier
transport mechanisms that are passive mechanisms
simple diffusion
What is the difference among isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions?
A solution with the same osmotic pressure as body fluids is called isotonic; one with higher osmotic pressure than body fluids is hypertonic; one with lower osmotic pressure is hypotonic.
What is a hypotonic solution?
the solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell so water moves into the cell causing plant cells to swell and animal cells to swell and burst
What is hypertonic solution?
The solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell so water moves out of the cell and into the solution causing the cell to plasmolyze
Steps of the cell cycle
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
What are the two types of metabolic reactions?
Anabolism and Catabolism
Anabolism
Small molecules are built up into larger molecules, requiring energy
Catabolism
larger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules, releasing energy
What happens when an enzyme substrate complex is formed?
When the enzyme and substrate are joined, the catalytic action of the enzyme converts the substrate to the product (or products) of the reaction.
What is the active site on an enzyme?
Active sites on the enzyme combine with the substrate and a reaction occurs.
Denaturation
the alteration of a protein shape through some form of external stress (for example, by applying heat, acid or alkali), in such a way that it can no longer carry out its cellular function.
What is ATP?
the primary source of energy for a cell
How do cells get the energy to make ATP?
By breaking apart glucose molecules
What is aerobic respiration? What are the two stages? How many ATP are produced?
Aerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy involving oxygen. Cells break down food in the mitochondria in a 2-step process. The first step is glycolysis, and the second is the citric acid cycle. It produces roughly 36 ATP.
What is glycolysis? How does it begin and what is produced at the end?
The 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in the cytosol into 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules.
What is anaerobic respiration? How many ATP are produced? Where in the cell does it take place?
Anaerobic respiration is the process of producing cellular energy without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is a relatively fast reaction and produces 2 ATP. Anaerobic reactions occur in the cytoplasm.
What is the electron transport chain?
The electron transport chain passes each electron along, gradually lowering the electron’s energy level and transferring that energy to ATP synthase
What are the characteristics of DNA?
Double-stranded DNA molecules twist to form a double helix consisting of “sugar-phosphate rails” and bases pair to form the “rungs.”
What are the 4 types the DNA molecule base can be?
(A) adenine
What are the complementary base pairs for DNA?
A T
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Single-stranded molecules, their nucleotides have ribose rather than deoxyribose sugar, and uracil rather than thymine. Functions in protein synthesis.
Nucleotides
Building blocks of nucleic acid; consist of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and one of several nitrogenous bases
What are the 4 types the RNA molecule base can be?
A) adenine
How is RNA made?
All of the RNA in a cell is made by DNA transcription, a process catalyzed by a class of enzymes called RNA polymerases.
List the steps of protein synthesis.
During protein synthesis tRNA molecules bring the appropriate amino acids to align against an mRNA molecule temporarily held on a ribosome. The aligned amino acids join and the polypeptide that grows folds.
Transcription
the process of copying the information encoded in DNA to produce RNA
Translation
The process of translating the series of codons of mRNA from the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids.
codons
set of three nucleotides in a messenger RNA molecule corresponding to one of the 20 types of amino acids
How does DNA replicate?
During interphase, hydrogen bonds break between the base pairs.
Mutations
The rare distinctions in DNA sequence that affect how we look or feel. Mutations may be spontaneous (due to transient mispairing during DNA replication) or induced by exposure to certain chemicals or radiation.
What is a tissue?
layers or groups of similar cells with a common function
What are the four types of tissues in the body?
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues
What are the general characteristics of epithelial tissue?
Covers body surface and organs, lines body cavities and hollow organs, composes glands, lacks blood vessels, cells readily divide, and cells are tightly packed; they function in protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensory
How are most epithelial tissues named?
Epithelial tissues are classified according to cell shape and number of cell layers
What is glandular epithelium?
a single cell or a mass of cells; produces and secretes substances into ducts or into body fluids
Simple Squamous Epithelium
single layer of thin, flattened cells; it functions in the exchange of gases in the lungs and lines blood and lymph vessels as well as body cavities
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
single layer of cube-shaped cells with
Simple Columnar Epithelium
a row of elongated cells whose nuclei
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
These cells appear layered due to the varying positions of their nuclei within the
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
layers of flattened cells that are designed to
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
three layers of cuboidal cells lining a lumen of the
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
several layers of cells and is found in the vas deferens, part of the male urethra, and parts of the pharynx
Transitional Epithelium
designed to distend and return to its normal size, as it does in the lining of the urinary bladder
What are the general characteristics of connective tissue? Cell types? Fiber types?
Bind, support protect, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells; The fibroblast is the most common cell type, and is a large, star-shaped cell that secretes fibers and is fixed into position; Strong collagenous fibers (white fibers), made of the protein collagen, add strength for holding body parts together
Adipose Tissue
connective tissue designed to store fat; it is found beneath the skin, around joints, padding the kidneys and other internal organs, and in certain abdominal membranes
Dense Connective Tissue
Densely packed collagenous fibers; very strong but lacks a good blood supply; found as part of tendons and ligaments.
Cartilage
rigid connective tissue that provides a supportive framework; lacks blood supply
3 types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage
condrocyte
cartilage cell
osteocyte
bone cell
Canaliculi
small channels through matrix; necessary for nutrient and wast exchange
3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
skeletal muscle tissue
muscles attach to bones and can be controlled by conscious effort; also called voluntary muscle tissue; long and narrow cells
smooth muscle tissue
comprises walls of hollow internal organs like stomach, intestines, bladder; involuntary movements of internal organs
cardiac muscle tissue
heart movements; involuntary
difference between neurons and neuroglia
Neurons are highly specialized to conduct and transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body to another; the basic functional units of nervous tissue
What is the epidermis?
outer layer of skin
What is the dermis?
inner layer of skin
What is the subcutaneous layer?
It is also known as the hypodermis, and it’s the inner most layer of skin; binds the skin to underlying organs and contains the blood vessels that supply the skin
what cells and pigments produce skin color?
melanocytes produce meanin
What is the arrector pili muscle?
A bundle of smooth muscle cells attached to
What is the sebaceous gland?
associated with hair follicles and secrete
What is the difference between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands?
Eccrine sweat glands are most numerous and respond throughout to body temperature elevated by environmental heat or physical exertion.
What are the parts of a long bone?
Epiphysis, Diaphysis, Medullary cavity, Periosteum
Epiphysis
Expanded ends of bones that form joints with adjacent bones
Diaphysis
Shaft of a long bone bone
Medullary cavity
The diaphysis contains a hollow medullary cavity that is lined with endosteum and filled with marrow.
Periosteum
tough layer of vascular connective tissue in long bone, covers the bone and is continuous with ligaments and tendons
What is compact bone?
tightly packed tissue that covers the wall of the diaphysis; there are no gaps
Spongy bone?
Lighter section of the bone often filled with red bone marrow. This is what epiphyses are composed of.
Describe the process of ossification.
Chondrocytes enlarge and calcify, blood vessels invade the perichondrium, the perichondrium is converted into a periosteum, and the inner layer produces bone, osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with spongy bone, osteoclasts create a narrow cavity.
What is the ephiphyseal plate (disk)?
A band of hyaline cartilage that forms between the two ossification centers; responsible for lengthening bones
Distinguish among osteocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Osteocytes- mature bone cells
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Supports the body, protects innards, production of blood cells, provide place for muscle attachment, store minerals and salts
What is the axial skeleton?
skull, spine, rib cage
Appendicular skeleton
Upper limbs, Lower limbs, Shoulder girdle, Pelvic girdle
What are the steps of fracture repair?
hematoma formation, fibrocartilage formation, bony callus formation, bone remodeling by osteoclasts to get back to its original shape
How are bones classified?
according to their shapes — long, short, flat or irregular
synovial joint
most common and complex joint in skeletal system; allow free movement and are diarthrotic
articular cartilage
reduces wear on the bone ends and minimizes friction
joint capsule
consists of an outer layer of dense connective tissue that joins the periosteum, and an inner layer made up of synovial membrane
ligament
tough collagenous fibers that reinforce the joint capsule and help bind articular ends of bones
synovial membrane
covers surfaces within the joint capsule
synovial fluid
comes from the synovial membrane, egg white consistency, decreases friction from movement of joint; it lubricates the joint and nourishes the structures in the joint
meniscus
cushion articulating surfaces and help distribute body weight
bursae
Flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane on the inside and make synovial fluid. Cushion and aid the movement of tendons that glide over bony parts of other tendons
What are the six different types of synovial joints?
plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball & socket
FLEXION
decreases the angle of the joint and brings 2 bones closer together
OPPOSITION
touching the opposing thumb with a finger
DEPRESSION
moving the part inferiorly like drooping the shoulders (opening the mouth, lowering the jaw)
ELEVATION
lifting the body parts superiorly like shrugging your shoulders (closing the mouth, raising the jaw)
PROTRACTION
a non-angular movement in the transverse plane (moving the jaw forward)
RETRACTION
moving the jaw backwards
EVERSION
turning the sole of the foot lateral
INVERSION
turning the sole of the foot medially
SUPINATION
turning backwards or rotating the forearm laterally so the palm faces upward; this is the anatomical position and the radius and ulna are parallel in this position
PRONATION
(opposite of supination) the forearm rotates medially and the palm faces down. this is the relaxed position.
ROTATION
turning a bone on the long axis like shaking the head no
CIRCUMDUCTION
moving the distal end of a limb in a circle and the proximal end is stationary
EXTENSION
increases the angle of the joint and the 2 bones are further apart
DORSIFLEXION
lifting the foot so the superior surfaces approaches the shin, like rocking on your heels
PLANTAR FLEXION
pointing the toes downward, like on your tip toes
ABDUCTION
moving a limb away from the midline or median
ADDUCTION
moving a limb towards the midline
fascia
sheets of connective tissue that separates an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent muscles and holds it in place
tendon
bands of dense connective tissue that attach skeletal muscles to bone
aponeuroses
sheets of connective tissue which may attach muscle to bone or the coverings of adjacent muscles
explain why skeletal muscle fibers appear striated
myofibrils contain 2 kinds of protein filaments — thick ones composed of myosin and thin ones composed of actin. the organization of these filaments produces the characteristics alternating light and dark striations of skeletal muscle fiber.
myofibril
parallel, threadlike structures; bundles of protein in a muscle cell; play a fundamental role in muscle contraction; long bundles of contractile proteins found in the sarcoplasm
Which are components of thin filaments?
actin, troponin, tropomyosin
myosin
makes up thick filaments
sarcolemma
plasma membrane of a muscle cell
sarcomere
distance between Z lines; extends from one Z line to the next and constitutes one contractile unit of a muscle
sarcoplasm
the cytoplasm found in muscle cells
sarcoplasmic reticulum
endoplasmic reticulum of other cells
transverse tubules
The sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubules activate the muscle contraction mechanism when the fiber is stimulated.
What is the function of actin and myosin?
According to the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, the myosin crossbridge attaches to the binding site on the actin filament and bends, pulling on the actin filament; it then releases and attaches to the next binding site on the actin, pulling again
What is the neuromuscular junction?
the connection between the motor neuron and muscle fiber
Acetycholine
A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary movement, sleep and wakefulness. The neurotransmitter used at the skeletal muscle neuromuscular junction.
Origin and Insertion
The immovable end of a muscle is the origin, while the movable end is the insertion; contraction pulls the insertion toward the origin.
Difference between synergists and antagonists?
Helper muscles are called synergists; opposing muscles are called antagonists
prime mover
muscle doing majority of work
What is the central nervous system (CNS)?
The brain and the spinal cord which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system.
What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
All of the peripheral nerves that connect all of the parts of the body with the CNS. These are the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
maintains homeostasis of visceral activities without conscious effort.
What is the somatic nervous system?
division of PNS; communicates voluntary instructions to skeletal muscles
What are the basic parts of a neuron?
cell body with mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus, Nissl bodies containing rough endoplasmic reticulum, and neurofibrils.
What are the functional classifications of neurons?
Neurons can be grouped in two ways: on the basis of structural differences (bipolar, unipolar, and multipolar neurons) and by functional differences (sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons).
List the neuroglial cells and what are their functions.
1. Microglial cells are small cells that phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular debris.
Resting Potential
In a resting nerve cell the potential difference between the potassium ions inside the membrane and the sodium ions outside the membrane
what is the resting potential value?
-70 millivolts
polarization
A cell membrane is usually polarized, with an excess of negative charges on the inside of the membrane; polarization is important to the conduction of nerve impulses
depolarization
When the membrane potential becomes less negative, the membrane is depolarized. If sufficiently strong depolarization occurs, a threshold potential is achieved as ion channels open. At threshold, action potential is reached.
repolarization
At the same time, potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to leave the cell, the membrane becomes repolarized, and resting potential is reestablished.
what is action potential?
At threshold potential, membrane permeability to sodium suddenly changes in the region of stimulation. As sodium channels open, sodium ions rush in, and the membrane potential changes and becomes depolarized. At the same time, potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to leave the cell, the membrane becomes repolarized, and resting potential is reestablished. This rapid sequence of events is the action potential.
saltatory conduction
when myelinated fibers conduct impulses from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier; it is many times faster than conduction on unmyelinated
synapse
a junction between two neurons
meninges
membranes that are located between the bone and the soft tissues of the nervous system that protect the brain and spinal cord
What are the three layers of meninges?
dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
ventricles
four interconnected cavities in the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem; they are continuous with central canal of spinal cord and filled with CSF
What is the function of the spinal cord?
Two main functions of spinal cord center for spinal reflexes, conduit for nerve impulses to and from the brain
ascending tracts
conduct sensory impulses to the brain; comprised of axons
descending tracts
conduct motor impulses from the brain to motor neurons reaching muscles and glands; comprised of axons
lobes
named according to the bones they underlie and
fissures
Two deep longitudinal grooves (anterior median fissure and posterior median sulcus) divide the cord into right and left halves.
What role do the convolutions play in the brain?
Increase the surface area of the brain
gyri
the puffs or ridges that cover the cerebral surface
sulci
shallow grooves on cerebral surface; divide each hemisphere into lobes
Functions of cerebrum?
Higher brain functions including interpreting sensory impulses; initiating muscular movements; storing memory; reasoning, and intelligence
What are the functions of the Frontal Lobe?
planning; initiation and inhibition of voluntary motion; cognitive function
What is the function of the Parietal Lobe?
receives sensory information; integrates information from vision, audition and somatic information
What is the function of the Temporal Lobe?
receives auditory information;
What is the function of the Occipital Lobe?
receives visual information
basal ganglia
masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemispheres that relay motor impulses from the cerebrum and help to control motor activities by producing inhibitory dopamine
Diencephalon
Processes sensory input; The diencephalon lies above the brain stem and contains the thalamus and hypothalamus.
What are the major functions of the hypothalamus?
Maintains homeostasis by regulating a variety of visceral activities and by linking the nervous and endocrine systems.
What are the major functions of the thalamus?
“Gateway to the sensory cortex.” Receives all sensory impulses (except those associated with the sense of smell) and channels them to appropriate regions of the cortex for interpretation. The thalamus is not only a messenger but also an editor.
what are major parts of brain?
cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem
what are parts of the brainstem?
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
Functions of the midbrain?
Contains bundles of myelinated nerve fibers that convey impulses to and from higher parts of the brain, and masses of gray matter that serve as reflex centers. It contains centers for auditory and visual reflexes.
Functions of the pons?
transmits impulses between the brain and spinal cord, and contains centers that regulate the rate and depth of breathing
Functions of the medulla oblongota?
control visceral functions, including the cardiac center that controls heart rate, the vasomotor center for blood pressure control, and the respiratory center that works to control the rate and depth of breathing
What is the cerebellum?
communication with other parts of the CNS by tracts;
sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
prepares the body for energy-expending, stressful, or emergency situations
parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
most active under ordinary, restful conditions; it also counters the effects of the sympathetic division and restores the body to a resting state following a stressful experience
What are the five types of sensory receptors?
chemoreceptors, pain receptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors
sensory adaptation
the ability to ignore unimportant stimuli
Three types of receptors detect touch and pressure
free nerve endings, Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles
free nerve endings
Free ends of sensory nerve fibers in the epithelial tissues are associated with touch and pressure
Meissner’s corpuscles
flattened connective tissue sheaths surrounding two or more nerve fibers and are abundant in hairless areas that are very sensitive to touch, like the lips.
Pacinian corpuscles
large structures of connective tissue and cells that detect deep pressure
warm and cold receptors
They adapt quickly. Temperatures near 45C stimulate pain receptors; temperatures below
olfactory receptor cells
sense odors; chemoreceptors (neurons) that respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids
Name the five primary taste sensations
Umami, Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter
Why don’t taste receptors diminish with age?
taste cells are modified epithelial cells and divide continually
What are the parts of the outer ears?
auricle and the external auditory meatus
What are the parts of the middle ears?
The middle ear begins with the tympanic membrane, which is an air-filled space housing the auditory ossicles. Three auditory ossicles are the malleus, incus, and stapes.
3 Parts of the Labyrinths – INNER EAR
cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibule
How are sound vibrations transmitted to the inner ear?
The tympanic membrane vibrates the malleus, which vibrates the incus, then the stapes.
What is static equilibrium?
help to maintain the position of the head when
What is dynamic equilibrium?
help to maintain balance when the head and
retina
contains photoreceptors
cornea
helps focus entering light rays
iris
colored portion of the eye and adjusts the amount of light entering the eye
lens
transparent structure of the eye that changes shape to focus light onto the retina
sclera
the white portion of the eye
choroid coat
what part of the eye are rods and cones found?
the inner nervous tunic
What are the rods and cones?
Rods are more sensitive to light and function in dim light; they produce colorless vision. Cones provide sharp images in bright light and enable us to see in color.
