WGU D094 EXAM LATEST 2023-2024 REAL EXAM 150+ QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 1
Biological and Physiological needs: basic life needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 2
Safety Needs: protection, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 3
Belongingness and Love needs: family, affection, relationships, work group, etc.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 4
Esteem needs: achievement, status, responsibility, reputation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 5
Cognitive needs: knowledge, meaning, self-awareness

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 6
Aesthetic needs: beauty, balance, form, etc.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 7
Self-actualization: personal growth, self-fulfillment

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs LEVEL 8
Transcendence: helping others to self-actualize

Stages of Physical Development
INFANCY (Birth – 2 years)
INFANTS: hold heads up, roll over, reach for things, sit, crawl, begin to walk, increased coordination, manipulate objects with hands

BY AGE 2:
feed themselves with hands, jump and run awkwardly, throw a ball, pull a zipper down, make a tower of blocks

Stages of Physical Development
EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 – 6 years)
TODDLERS: love to run, hop, tumble, play, swing, jigsaw puzzles, string beads, fine motor skills begin developing

BY AGE 4: print name, eats with utensils, dress and undress self

Stages of Physical Development
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 – 10 years)
slow, steady weight gain, speed and coordination improve, begin organized sports

BY AGE 10: improved writing skills, engages in organized sports

Stages of Physical Development
ADOLESCENCE (10 – 18 years)
weight and heigh increase, girls typically begin puberty before boys

BY LATE ADOLESCENCE:
boys are typically taller and more muscular than girls of the same age, girls’ physical growth slows, boys may grow into early adulthood

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 1
SENSIORIMOTOR

Birth to 2 years
Babies = 5 senses and gross motor skills. Objective permeance by the end of the stage

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 2
PREOPERATIONAL

2 to 7 years
Pre = Preschoolers = illogical, egocentric

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 3
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL

7 to 11 years
Grade Schoolers = Factual. They like concrete hands-on activities

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
STAGE 4
FORMAL OPERATIONAL

11 years and older
Think abstractly and use hypotheses

The Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory

Assimilation: New information comes in and it is the same/similar to previous information. You just add to your scheme. The s in assimilation stands for the same.
Accommodation: New information comes in and is different than previous schemes. You have to change your scheme. The c in accommodation stands for change.

MKO (Vygotsky)
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) – According to Vygotsky we learn through socialization with a More Knowledgeable Other (an adult, older child, or more knowledgeable peer).

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
Zone of Proximal Development – The just right place to teach a child. Not too hard, not too easy. They need a little support (scaffolding) from the teacher. Think of first and second grade reading groups – these groups are placing the students in their zone of proximal development.

Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Scaffolding – Supporting the students in their learning. Asking leading questions, providing hints, clues, without directly giving students the answer.

3 Types of Speech (Vygotsky)

Social Speech – When we talk to others
Private Speech – When we talk out loud to ourselves. This occurs between ages 3-7. A child cannot speak quietly inside his/her head.
Silent Inner Speech – When we talk inside our head. No one can hear our private inner thoughts.

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
TRUST VS. MISTRUST
(birth to 1 year) – Learning that a care giver will meet the baby’s needs

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT
(1 to 3 years) – The me do stage – Pick this choice when the child insists on doing something in the scenario.

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
(3 to 6 years) – Pick this choice when the scenario mentions exploration.

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
(6 – 12 years – grade schoolers) At this stage we want to provide positive reinforcement to students. Focus on their strengths. Help everyone to be successful.

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
(12 – 18 years -middle and high schoolers) The adolescents is trying to figure out what they want to do with their lives.

Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
(20s through early 40s)- Finding a partner and friends. Having people, you can count on and not feeling alone.

Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning

Social Learning = Social Cognitivism
Modeling and Emulation – “Bobo Doll Experiment” – “Monkey see, Monkey do” – You watch someone model a behavior and then try and emulate (copy) it.

Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning
3 TYPES OF MODELS
3 Kinds of Models

live – demonstrates behavior in person
verbal – explain or describe behavior
symbolic – books, movies, tv, video games, etc.

Bandura’s Theory of Observational and Modeling Learning
FOR LEARNING TO BE SUCCESSFUL
For Learning (emulation) to be successful:

Attention- Focus, pay attention
Retention – Remember it
Reproduction – Be able to perform it
Motivation – Want to copy the model

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
PRECONVENTIONAL
Preconventional- When you follow rule because there is either a punishment or reward (Instrumental Relativist). Take the PRE in Preconventional. The P stands for punishment and the re stands for reward.
Stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental orientation

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
CONVENTIONAL
When you follow the rules because that is the rule or because you do not want to be judged poorly. Picture someone wearing an “I Love Rules” shirt. “I love the rules” “I am such a good person”
Stage 3: Good boy-nice girl orientation
Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
POST CONVENTIONAL
When you question the rules, seek to change the rules, or knowingly break the rules because you do not agree with them. Take the ST in Post and think of stupid. This person thinks the rules are stupid, they will not follow them, and they do not care if they get caught. I will follow my own internal moral compass. Usually refers to social justice type issues.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory

Females view morality through a lens of caring for others.
Gilligan believes there are Gender Differences in how we approach moral dilemmas
The G in Gilligan stands for Girl Power or Gender Differences

Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
PRECONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision for myself: I love myself

Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
CONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision based on others: I love you more than I love myself

Gilligan’s Ethics of Care Theory
POSTCONVENTIONAL
I make a moral decision based on others and myself: I love myself AND I love you

Stages of Social and Emotional Development
INFANTS AND BABIES
By 2 months
Cry to get needs met
Occasionally self-soothe by sucking on hands and fingers
Start to smile and look directly at you

By 4 months
Cry in different ways to show hunger, pain, or being tired
Smile in response to caregiver’s smile
Play with toys by shaking them

By 6 months
Are more aware of which people are familiar and which are strangers
Can respond to other people’s emotions by crying, smiling, or laughing
Enjoy looking at themselves in the mirror

By 9 months
· Start to show stranger anxiety
· May cry when familiar faces aren’t around
· Start to prefer some toys over others

By 12 months
· Play favorites with familiar people
· Are more interactive (like handing over a toy or a book or making a specific noise to get a caregiver’s attention)
· Enjoy simple interactive games, like patty-cake and peekaboo

Stages of Social and Emotional Development
TODDLERS AND PRESCHOOLERS
Ages 18 months-2 years
· Have more temper tantrums and become more defiant as they try to communicate and be independent
· Start simple pretend play, like imitating what adults or other kids are doing
· Become interested in having other kids around, but are more likely to play alongside them (parallel play) than with them (cooperative play)

Ages 3-4 years
· Start to show and verbalize a wider range of emotion
· Are interested in pretend play, but may confuse real and “make believe”
· Are spontaneously kind and caring
· Start playing with other kids and separate from caregivers more easily
· May still have tantrums because of changes in routine or not getting what they want

Stages of Social and Emotional Development
GRADESCHOOLERS
Ages 5-6 years
· Enjoy playing with other kids and are more conversational and independent
· Test boundaries but are still eager to please and help out
· Begin to understand what it means to feel embarrassed

Ages 7-8 years
· Are more aware of others’ perceptions
· May complain about friendships and other kids’ reactions
· Want to behave well, but aren’t as attentive to directions
· Try to express feelings with words, but may resort to aggression when upset

Ages 9-10 years
· Share secrets and jokes with friends
· May start to develop own identity by withdrawing from family activities and conversations
· Are affectionate, silly, and curious, but can also be selfish, rude, and argumentative

Stages of Social and Emotional Development
MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOLERS
Ages 11-15 years
· Start thinking more logically
· Are introspective and moody and need privacy
· Value friends’ and others’ opinions more and more
· May test out new ideas, clothing styles, and mannerisms while figuring out where/how to fit in

Ages 16-18 years
· Strive to be independent and may start emotionally distancing from caregivers
· Start trying to discover strengths and weaknesses, at times seeming self-centered, impulsive, or moody
· Show pride in successes
· Spend a lot of time with friends and may be interested in dating

Chromsky’s Theory of Language Development
· Linguist Noam Chomsky’s work discusses the biological basis for language and claims that children have innate abilities to learn language.
· Chomsky terms this innate ability the “language acquisition device.”
· He believes children instinctively learn language without any formal instruction.
· Chomsky also believes in the existence of a “universal grammar,” which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share.
· Noam Chomsky the father of modern linguistics. Universal Grammar (UG) –

Babies go through the same stages in development no matter what language they are learning
Infants master language way faster than they should if they’re a blank slate.

Skinner’s Theory of Language Development
· B. F. Skinner, a well-known behaviorist, held that language use, like other behaviors, was conditioned or influenced by the responses you receive from others around you.
· B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; in other words, children receive “rewards” for using language in a functional manner. For example, a child learns to say the word “drink” when she is thirsty; she receives something to drink, which reinforces her use of the word for getting a drink, and thus she will continue to do so.
· This follows the four-term contingency that Skinner believed was the basis of language development: (1) motivating operations that make a stimulus more or less effective, (2) discriminative stimuli that tend to evoke a specific response, (3) response to language use, and (4) reinforcing stimuli that provide positive feedback.
· Skinner also stated that children learn language through three key processes:
1 Imitating others (e.g., seeing a sibling ask for an apple and then asking for one)
2 Prompting from others (e.g., a parent might ask, “Do you want an apple?”)
3 Shaping from others (e.g., a parent might affirm and refine a child’s response: “Yes, that’s a fruit. It’s an apple. Did you want it?”) (Lumen Learning, n.d.)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Approach
· Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development, including his theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), emphasizes the importance of social communication and scaffolding in helping children learn to use language.
· Vygotsky believed that language is not learned in a vacuum but depends on the interaction and communication between the learner and his or her peers.
· Psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s theory of language development focused on social learning and the ZPD. The ZPD is a level of development obtained when children engage in social interactions with others; it is the distance between a child’s potential to learn and the actual learning that takes place.

Stages of Language Development
PRE-TALKING/COOING
0-6 months
vowel like sounds

Stages of Language Development
BABBLING
6-8 months, consonant-vowel combinations

Stages of Language Development
HOLOPHRASTIC
9-18 months, one word

Stages of Language Development
TWO-WORD STAGE
18-24 months, mini sentence

Stages of Language Development
TELEGRAPHIC STAGE
24-30 months, sentences longer than two words that are structured similarly to the syntactic structures found in the sentences produced by adult grammar

Stages of Language Development
LATER MULTIWORD STAGE
30+ months, fastest increase in vocabulary, seem to understand everything said within hearing and directed to them

Intrinsic Barrier
Internal to the student, inside, within the student

Extrinsic Barrier
External to the student, outside. Resulting from student’s environment and circumstances

Atypical Barrier
Unusual

Cognition
thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding

Language
expressive and receptive abilities

Motor coordination
gross/fine motor, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing, stacking

Social interaction
initiating peer contact, group play

Adaptive
dressing, eating, washing

ELL Students: Cultural Differences and English Language Learners

making eye contact
speaking to adults
taking initiative
ACCOMODATIONS:
explain concepts using models or multi-sensory materials
facilitate vocabulary growth using pictures accompanied by verbal cues
provide opportunities for children to demonstrate understanding through non-verbal play
find alternate ways to help children communicate and participate until language foundations are secure

Cognitive Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance: Common Cognitive Barriers and Behaviors
· Cognitive Challenges are usually intrinsic barriers.
· Common challenges students may experience are learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), and ADHD.

Cognitive Skills are:

Knowledge: remembering information.
Comprehension: understanding what has been communicated.
Application: using general concepts to solve problems.
Analysis: breaking down information into parts to see relationships between ideas.
Synthesis: making something new by organizing information into new relationships or patterns.
Evaluation: deciding which methods should be used to solve problem

Behaviors Associated with Common Cognitive Development Barriers

Difficulties with adaptive behavior or social functioning
Short attention spans and poor listening skills
Difficulties remembering instructions
Difficulties understanding abstract concepts
Difficulties with planning and time management skills
Difficulties completing tasks on time
Need for explicit instruction, repetition, and additional practice

Possibility signs of learning disabilities in children:
Difficulty understanding and following simple instructions

Trouble with remembering what someone just said
Fails to comprehend what he reads

Delayed speech development
Struggles to express ideas in writing

Transposes math symbols and numbers

Difficulty understanding age-appropriate jokes and sarcasm

Very messy handwriting
Significant difficulty in spelling

Difficulty grasping social conventions

Lacks coordination in walking and sports

Difficulty cutting out shapes in paper or holding a pencil

Frequently loses or misplaces personal items

Trouble comprehending conceptual time (i.e. yesterday, today, tomorrow)

Dyslexia and Dyscalculia

Traumatic Brain Injury
A brain injury may impair a student’s ability to recall information when needed, such as in testing situations, and may also experience challenges conveying their thoughts in speech and writing.

Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills.

Intellectual disabilities are diagnosed by looking at two main things:

IQ
Skills to live independently

Adaptive behavior
· daily living skills, such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, and feeding one’s self;
· communication skills, such as understanding what is said and being able to answer;
· social skills with peers, family members, adults, and others.

Social and Emotional Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
Some of these social and emotional developmental barriers may be external or extrinsic (caused by the student’s environment), and some may be internal or intrinsic (caused by factors within the student).

Behavioral Disorders
Behavioral disorders also known as conduct disorders are one of the most common forms of disability among children and young adults and is the most frequently cited reason for referral to mental health services.

Language Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
· As with cognitive barriers, many language barriers are characterized as intrinsic, or innate to the student, rather than being a function of environment or circumstance.

Communication Disorders
· Communication disorders involve persistent problems related to language and speech.
· Language is “the ability to encode one’s ideas into language forms and symbols,” and comprehension, “the ability to understand the meanings that others have expressed using language.” Speech refers specifically to sound produced orally.

Physical Development Barriers to Student Learning and Performance
The category of “physical barriers” is broad, encompassing both intrinsic or student-specific challenges (physical disabilities, hearing and vision challenges, mobility difficulties, or health conditions) and extrinsic or external barriers (poverty, lack of transportation, homelessness, or lack of sleep or nutrition)

Crystallized intelligence
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increase or stay the same as we get older. Our basic facts and vocabulary.

Fluid Intelligence
reason quickly and abstractly; decreases at get older. Our ability to problem solve and think fast.

Spearman’s general intelligence (g-factor)
Believes we have a general intelligence. You are average, above average, or below average. Pick Spearman’s General Intelligence when you see they are generalizing about the students’ intelligence. For example, since students are good at addition and subtraction the teacher believes they will be good at multiplication.

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Proposes we have multiple types of intelligence. We will be average in some, above average in some, and below average in some. Pick Gardner’s Multiple Theory of Intelligence when the scenario says that the teacher is working on _ intelligence. (In the blank you will see one of Gardner’s 8 intelligences.

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence is made up 3 independent intelligences: Creative, Analytical, and Practical. Pick Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory by using Sternberg’s CAP – The scenario will say the teacher is working on the student’s Creative, Analytical, and/or Practical Intelligence.

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities Theory
Intelligence comes from seven independent factors that he called primary abilities: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed
Know that like Gardner he has a multiple intelligence theory.

Classical Conditioning
A neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response. This one goes with Pavlov’s Dogs

Operant Conditioning
A response is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. This one goes with B. F. Skinner.

The instructional strategy used by Skinner/operant conditioning/behaviorism is:
direct instruction. Think of direct instruction as a lecture. A teacher lectures at a board and then gives you practice.

Information Processing Theory
Your brain is like a computer. Information goes in and information comes out.

The instructional strategies used by the information processing theory are:

Trivia and jeopardy style games
Attention-getting devices – Dressing-up for students, telling a funny story, using a visual/picture, underlining, highlighting, color coding
Mnemonic devices
Concept Maps

Social Cognitive Learning Theory
This theory goes with Bandura from Module 3. The Social Cognitivist believe something is modeled and one tries to emulate (copy) it. The “Monkey see, monkey do” theory.

Self-efficacy
is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or of reaching a specific goal. Self-efficacy is very important to the social cognitivists. According to them, I should not allow you to take a test unless you have high self-efficacy about your ability to pass.

The instructional strategies used by the social cognitive theory are:
-Modeling/Emulation

Reciprocal Teaching – The teacher teaches a student and then the student teaches a buddy
Reciprocal Questioning – The students ask the teacher questions and then the teacher asks the students questions.

Humanistic Learning Theory
The Humanitistic Learning Theory focuses on the whole child/whole human. This thoery is focused on how the child feels. This theory goes with Maslow from Module 1. They believe people have free will and are basically good.

The instructional strategies used by the humanistic learning theory are:

Breaks (Snack breaks, water breaks, wiggle breaks, recess)
Choices (For example: Choose your book, choose your center, etc.)
Explaining to students why they are learning something
Checking-in with students

Intrinsic motivation
is motivation that is based on internal factors like what you like to do and things that make you happy. The “in” in intrinsic stands for “inside you.” You do it because you want to. For example: learning to bake a cake, read a book, or learning to build a car because you just want to.

Extrinsic motivation
is motivation that is based on external factors like money, rewards, obligations, or approval. The ex in extrinsic stands for “exit” It is outside of you. For example: reading a book for a pizza coupon, passing this course so you can eventually get your diploma, etc.

Growth Mindset
is believing that intelligence is not fixed. The belief that everyone is capable of learning.

Constructivist Learning Theory
The Constructivist Learning Theory is the builders. They believe learners are constatnly building on their previous knowledge. Learners are not passive recipients of information. They are active in the learning process. Learning is an interactive experience. This theory goes with Piaget and Vygotsky from Module 2.

Cognitive Constructivism
goes with Piaget – We learn through experience. We learn by doing, seeing, touching, experiencing things. Real-world experiences and hands-on learning is important.

Social Constructivism
goes with Vygotsky – We learn through expereinces with more knowledgeable others (an adult, older child, more knowledgable peer). Scaffolding in the zone of proximal development, mulitiple viewpoints, and cooperative/collaborative groups are important.

The instructional strategies used by the constructivist learning theory are:

Multiple Viewpoints – Hearing others’ opinions. For example, a book discussion. Or multiple viewpoints can be looking at things from many sides. For example, looking at a bill in Congress from a Democrat’s side and from a Republican’s side.
Scaffolding (asking leading questions/providing support) in the Zone of Proximal Development (the just right place to teach a student)
Real- World/Authentic/Interactive Learning
Project-based learning – This typically has students use multiple subjects to do a project.
Inquiry-based learning – seek resolutions to questions and issues while you construct new knowledge. “Inquiry” is defined as “a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge — seeking information by questioning.” Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
Spiral Curriculum – Ideas should be reintroduced at different stages and levels. Reintroducing concepts already learned in a “spiral” format helps students to reach a deeper level of understanding.
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning

Cooperative Learning
The focus is on the product more than the process.
Students of mixed abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups on a structured activity.
Instruction is teacher-led.

Collaborative Learning
The focus is on the process more than the product.
Students of similar abilities are grouped together. Students work in groups to explore a significant question.
Instruction is student-led.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 1
Remembering – Memorizing information. For example: addition facts, knowing the fifty states, knowing a date in history

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 2
Understanding – Restate in own words. Comprehension and paraphrasing. For example: What happened at the beginning of a story, explain a science concept in your own words.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 3
Applying – Use it to solve problems never seen before. Answer questions never heard before. For example: Using your math facts to solve a word problem

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 4
Analyzing – Break down a concept into components. Compare and contrast or pros and cons. For example: Listing the pros and cons to a recycling program.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 5
Evaluating – Look at two ideas and determine if one is more effective than the other. Making a judgement. For example: What do you believe? Should we have a recycling program? Why or why not?

Bloom’s Taxonomy
LEVEL 6
Creating – Come up with your own ideas and theories. When you make something new. For example: a research paper, a speech, etc.

Diagnostic Assessments
Given at the beginning of a unit. Before teaching takes place. It is either to decide where to start a lesson or who gets into a special program. This is usually not graded.

Formative Assessments
Does NOT usually go in the grade book. It is used to check if students are understanding and for your lesson plans. Examples include, asking questions, homework, worksheets, and activities.

Summative Assessments
This goes in your grade book. Examples include, finals, chapter tests, unit tests, etc. Two types of summative assessments: Written assessments and performance assessment

Written Response Assessments or Written Assessments or Written Tests
This is when we give students a specific amount of time to answer questions and they cannot use any notes. There are 3 types of written tests:

Selected Response – Multiple choice, True/False, and Fill-in-the-blank. These are the most efficient type of assessment. They are fairly easy to create and can be quickly graded with an answer key.
Short Answer – The student answers a prompt in 2-3 sentences
Essays – The student answers a prompt in several paragraphs to several pages

Authentic or Performance or Performance-based or Alternative Assessments
This is when we give students time to work on something and expect them to use resources. There are many types of performance assessments. These types of assessments are typically more complex than written assessments. Some examples include:

Direct Writing Assessment – A research paper
Exhibition Assessment – Anything you can display outside your classroom. For example, paintings, photos, tri-fold boards
Demonstration Assessment – Anything you see the student physically do. For example: A speech, a mock trial, play an instrument, sing, a science experiment, throw a ball, push-ups, etc.
Portfolios – This shows growth over time. We take work from the beginning of a unit, middle of the unit, and the end of the unit to see student progress. Writing portfolios are the most commonly used.

Norm-referenced Assessments
This is when we compare students. Norming = comparing. In a classroom, it is when we grade on a curve. For example, the top two scores get an A. When you are normed or norm-referenced it only tells me how you are compared. I cannot tell anything about the individual. Norm-referenced is used most often in standardized tests. The test is given to a norm (sample) group. You then receive a percentile rank. For example, you are in the 83 percentile. This does NOT mean you scored 83% out of 100%. This means you scored the same as or better than 83% of the people in the norm group. All norm-referencing can tell me is are you norm (average), above the norm (above average), or below the norm (below average).

Criterion-referenced Assessments
This is how we are used to being graded. You get what you get and that is what you earned. If you score 83% it means you correctly answered 83% of the questions out of 100%. With criterion-referenced assessments I can see your strengths and weaknesses. I can see what you have mastered. I can see your individual progress.

Standardized Tests
are standard – from the questions themselves, to the length of time students have to complete it (although some exceptions may be made for students with learning or physical disabilities), to the time of year in which the test is taken.

Objective Assessments
The “O” in Objective stands for one right answer. Everyone in the class puts the exact same answer. Objective assessments are multiple choice, true/false, and fill-in the blank. For example, on a multiple-choice test everyone must select C to be correct. If you select any other answer you are wrong. On a true /false test, everyone who put false was marked correct, every one who put true was marked wrong. On a fill-in the blank question of “What is 3+2?” Everyone must answer 5 or they are wrong.

Subjective Assessments
The “S” in Subjective stands for squishy. It is not exact. Everyone puts a slightly different answer and the evaluator has leeway or squishiness in how they grade you. This is how essays, papers, and projects are graded. There is typically a rubric that is used, but even with a rubric every evaluator may grade something slightly differently. Your performance assessments at WGU are subjective assessments. Have you ever looked at a rubric for a performance assessment and thought you had perfectly answered the question only to be told by evaluation you must revise it? That is a subjective assessment.

Competency-based Learning
This is where you allow students to work towards mastery. If a student does not do well on a test, paper, project, etc. You reteach the student and assess them until they are competent (they pass). Competency based learning is used at WGU.

Competency-based Assessment
Usually allows students to choose from a variety of assessments to demonstrate their mastery of the material. This transfers learning from the teacher to the student. If students do not do well, they are retaught and attempt to show their mastery again.

Rubrics
Used for Performance Assessments and Essay Tests – This is a guideline for the criteria you are looking for on something you are grading.

Behaviorist Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategy used by Skinner/operant conditioning/behaviorism is direct instruction. Think of direct instruction as a lecture. A teacher lectures at a board and then gives you practice. The most common type of practice is a worksheet. The teacher than gives you feedback on how you did on your practice. If you do not learn the concept you will have more instruction and practice.
Direct instruction works best when teaching the basic skills of reading, writing, and math.

Information Processing Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the information processing theory are

Trivia and jeopardy style games
Attention-getting devices – Dressing-up for students, telling a funny story, using a visual/picture, underlining, highlighting, color coding
Mnemonic devices
Concept Maps

Social Cognitive Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the social cognitive theory are

Modeling/Emulation
Reciprocal Teaching – The teacher teaches a student and then the student teaches a buddy
Reciprocal Questioning – The students ask the teacher questions and then the teacher asks the students questions.

Humanistic Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the humanistic learning theory are

Breaks (Snack breaks, water breaks, wiggle breaks, recess)
Choices (For example: Choose your book, choose your center, etc.)
Explaining to students why they are learning something
Checking-in with students

Constructivist Instructional Strategies:
The instructional strategies used by the constructivist learning theory are

Multiple Viewpoints – Hearing others’ opinions. For example, a book discussion. Or multiple viewpoints can be looking at things from many sides. For example, looking at a bill in Congress from a Democrat’s side and from a Republican’s side.
Scaffolding (asking leading questions/providing support) in the Zone of Proximal Development (the just right place to teach a student)
Real- World/Authentic/Interactive Learning
Project-based learning – This typically has students use multiple subjects to do a project.
Inquiry-based learning – seek resolutions to questions and issues while you construct new knowledge. “Inquiry” is defined as “a seeking for truth, information, or knowledge — seeking information by questioning.” Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions.
Spiral Curriculum – Ideas should be reintroduced at different stages and levels. Reintroducing concepts already learned in a “spiral” format helps students to reach a deeper level of understanding.
Cooperative/Collaborative Learning

Arnold Gesell theorized that children develop according to distinct developmental stages
True

Which 2 activities should an 18 month-old be able to perform?
Stacking books & using fingers to eat crackers

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (pyramid)
self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, & physiological.

Self-actualization (Maslow)
personal growth, fulfillment, & realization needs of one’s personal potential as a human being.

“To become everything one is capable of becoming.”

esteem (Maslow)
Self respect, respect from others, achievement, independence, status, & prestige needs.

Love and Belonging (Maslow)
Friendships, intimacy, trust, romance & love needs

Safety (Maslow)
Protection from the elements, financial & physical security, law & order, & freedom from fear needs

Physiological (Maslow)
Biological requirements for survival like food, water, shelter, & clothing

Maslow’s expanded hierarchy of needs
Transcendence, self-actualization, aesthetic, cognitive, esteem, love/belonging, safety, physiological.
(First 4 are growth needs, last 4 are deficiency needs)

Physiological Needs are the 1st needs that must be met in Maslow’s hierarchy
True

Lucas is a 4th grade student who has read almost every book in the class library. He asks his teacher if she’ll bring him some “bigger kid” books to read because he’s bored with the material in the classroom. Which need is he trying to satisfy?
Cognitive

Anika has served on student council for the past 2 years. Now that she’s a senior, she believes she’s more than qualified to serve as student council president, so she decides to run for office. Anika is attempting to meet a safety need.
False (either esteem or love/belonging)

The school calls an assembly each quarter to distribute academic achievement awards to students who’ve mastered a B average or higher that quarter.
Deficiency need: Esteem

A teacher provides students with multiple opportunities for cooperative group activities
Deficiency need: love and belonging

A school institutes a rigorous anti bullying program
Deficiency need: safety

The school cafeteria opens early to provide free and reduced price breakfast to eligible students
Deficiency need: physiological

stages of physical development (Arnold Gesell)
Infancy: birth-2 years old, adding motor skills, holding up head, rolling over, reaching for things, sitting, crawling, & walking. By 2 they’re walking with increased coordination, manipulating toys in hands, feeding themselves, making towers of cubes, jump/running awkwardly, throwing things, & using a zipper

Early childhood: 2-6yrs old, improvements in gross & fine motor skills, running, jumping, climbing, tumbling, & swinging. Can string beads, put puzzles together, & begin to scribble. By 4 many can print their names, dress/undress themselves, & eat with utensils

Middle childhood: 6-10yrs old, gain weight & height, permanent teeth grow in. Participate in organized sports as speed & coordination skills advance, continue to refine motor skills resulting in improved handwriting & drawings. Can use fine motor skills to sew, build models, or do other crafts

Adolescence: 10-18yrs old, weight/height increases rapidly, includes puberty. Girls usually begin earlier than boys. Increase in hormones affect behavior, might reject adult authority, & reach sexual maturity

Ren is 3yrs old. His preschool teacher is worried about him because he can’t print his name yet. The teacher’s concern is justified.
False

In middle school classrooms, teachers can use the same activities for all students.
False

An 18 month old in daycare recently developed ability to roll a ball back & forth w/ an adult.

A 5yr old kindergartener recently developed ability to draw a stick figure family of himself, his parents, & his sister.

A 9yr old 4th grader recently developed ability to shoot baskets consistently on school playground.

A 13yr old 8th grader recently began growing facial hair on upper lip.
Typical physical development

Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development
Birth to 2yrs: sensorimotor stage (object permanence)
2-7yrs: preoperational stage (pretend play, egocentric)
7-11yrs: concrete operational stage (conservation)
12yrs & up: formal operational stage (abstract, moral reasoning)

A teacher pours juice for Alice in a tall, narrow glass & for William in a short, squat glass. Although both have the same amount, Will shouts “hey, no fair! I have less than Alice!” Which of Piaget’s developmental stages is William in?
Preoperational

Diego knows a horse is a large animal w/ 4 legs, a tail, & body hair. When he sees a cow for the first time he calls it a horse. The word horse fits Diego’s Schema for the characteristics of a cow.
True

Schema
Basic building blocks of cognitive models, enabling us to form a mental representation of the world

Assimilation (Piaget)
The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall believesbeliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information

Accommodation (Piaget)
The cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated. This happens when the existing schema does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation

Equilibration (Piaget)
Occurs when a child schemas can deal with new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas

Which statement accurately summarizes Vygotsky’s thinking on cognitive development?
Much learning occurs via social interaction

As May sits at a table alone drawing a picture of a house, she says aloud, “first I will draw a square. Now I will add the roof. I will put a chimney on top. Then I will put in some windows.” May is engaging in social speech.
False

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone

What is the zone of proximal development?
The level of development just above where a learner is currently functioning

Identify whether the concept given describes an idea that was taught by Piaget or Vygotsky
Piaget: Little emphasis on the socio-cultural context of learning, believed that learning occurs individually

Vygotsky: no general stages of development, established opportunities for learners to interact with more skilled individuals, and emphasized the major role for language and cognitive development

Vygotsky emphasizes the role of culture on development far more than Piaget does
True

A classroom that emphasizes a student social interaction with a more skilled partner is based on the ideas proposed by Piaget
False

A teacher shows a five year old student how to draw a tree, demonstrating the task for the student and giving the student examples
Vygotsky

An eight year old student uses plastic coins while learning how to add and subtract with money
Piaget

Trust versus mistrust (Erikson)
Birth to 12 months old, infants must learned that adults can be trusted. They are dependent on caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to the infants needs to help their baby develop a sense of trust. The baby will see the world as a safe predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their babies needs can engender feelings of anxiety fear and mistrust, their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their meals are not met, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt (erikson)
1 to 3 years old, begin to explore the world, learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. Begin to show clear preference for certain elements of the environment such as food, toys, and clothing. Begin to establish independence, for example, a two-year-old Who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. If denied the opportunity to do so, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative versus guilt (erikson)
3 to 6 years old, capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. Must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt by learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others. Those who are unsuccessful at the stage with their in initiative misfiring or suffered by over controlling parents may develop feelings of guilt

Industry versus inferiority (erikson)
From 6 to 12 years old, children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, etc., or feel inferior and in adequate because they feel they do not measure up.

Identity versus role confusion (erikson)
From 12 years old to 18 years old, and adolescence main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions like who am I? And what do I want to do with my life? Adolescents who are successful at the stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other peoples perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or our pressure to conform to their parents ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion

Intimacy versus isolation (erikson)
From 20s to early 40s after developing a sense of self and adolescence they are ready to share their lives with others. However if other stages have not been successfully resolved young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. People must have a strong sense of self before they can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept and adolescents may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation

Kyle proudly told his father that he got a gold star on his spelling test at school today because he was the only student spelled all the words correctly. Which of Ericksons stages does this suggest that Kyle is currently passing?
Industry versus inferiority

An infant who looks to a caregiver for reassurance illustrates Erickson stage of
Trust versus mistrust

observational learning (modeling) (Bandura)
learning that occurs through watching and imitating the behaviors of others

social learning theory (Bandura)
Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement

Modeling
Vicarious learning

Bandura identify two kinds of models from which people could observe and learn new skills verbal and symbolic
False

A teacher has discovered one of her fourth grade students writing obscene words with chalk on the playground. The teacher is surprised because the student is one of the quietest and most well behaved children in class. Which explanation most closely fits benders theories?
The student noticed that his classmates laughed when another child did the same thing last week

Social cognitive theory (Bandura)
Self beliefs influence behavior
Formed through self reflection and self observation

Ethics of Care Theory (Gillian)
Preconventional – I love myself
Conventional – I love you more than I love myself
Post conventional – I love myself and I love you

Carol Gilligan believes that women brought a distinct perspective to ethical discussions because they prioritize abstract issues of right and wrong
False

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

A second grade student does not enjoy cleaning up after snacktime, but he does so enthusiastically because the teacher offers an incentive to the table that cleans up fast as each day
Instrumental orientation

A fifth grade class is discussing class rules. Several students and says that even if rules seem pointless, students need to follow them because of everyone breaks the rules chaos would result
Law and order orientation

A sophomore in high school decides to start a diversity club at school, hoping to advocate for inclusivity and equity for all learners. She does this because she believes it is the ethical thing to do, even though she is not sure how her peers will respond
Universal ethical principle orientation

Which of the following is typical of the social and emotional skills a child in elementary or grade school might display?
May try to verbalize feelings, but might become aggressive when under stress

A kindergarten teacher is planning classroom activities and is wondering what behavior to expect from students during group work. What is a typical social and emotional expectation for five year olds?
May want to please teacher or peers

Mr. Smith is working with a middle school student. The student tells him she wants to follow behavioral expectations, but she is not always able to control her emotions when she gets upset and often ends up raising her voice and disrupting class. Which response is likely to help the student develop the social and emotional skill of self control?
Teach the student deep breathing strategies and allow her to move to the break corner when she is upset

Which of these is a component of Chomsky’s language acquisition theory?
Language learning is innate and instinctive

Chomsky would say that a child’s pattern of language use demonstrates the existence of universal grammar
True

theory of operant conditioning (Skinner)
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior while punishment and extinction decrease behavior

Faith, a kindergarten student is learning English. Her teacher wants to reinforce Faith’s use of English vocabulary in a way that is consistent with operant conditioning or behavior us principles. When faith calls out to ask for a pencil, how should the teacher respond in order to reinforce her use of vocabulary words?
Smile, hand faith a pencil, and say, “here is the pencil. Please remember to raise your hand next time.”

A preschool teacher wants Michael to say “more juice please” when he wants more juice. The teacher first uses positive reinforcement to condition Michael to say “more” when he wants more juice, then reinforces “more juice”, and finally reinforces “more juice please.”Which principle of operant conditioning is the teacher using?
Shaping

Principles of Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
shaping, extinction, chaining, instinctive drift

What is the zone of proximal development?
The zone of proximal development is the space between a students actual and potential ability, and social interaction and scaffolding that can help students maximize their potential

Children are born with a language acquisition device or the innate ability to learn language
Chomsky

Language learning occurs when you receive a positive response to communication, increasing your motivation to try again
Skinner

Language learning happens in the contacts of culture and social interaction, but the scaffolding helping you develop language skills
Vygotsky

4 to 9 months old – babbling stage
10 to 12 months old – holophrastic stage
18 to 24 months old – two word stage
Children first language acquisition at age 1 to 3 years old in Balada

According to typical language development expectations, a 2 to 3-year-old child should be able to follow multi phrase classroom directions with abstract language, e.g. draw a line under the picture on the paper that shows something you play with.
False