1. What are the three core functions of public health and how do they relate to population health? (3 points) Answer: The three core functions of public health are assessment, policy development, and assurance. Assessment involves collecting and analyzing data on the health status and needs of a population. Policy development involves creating and implementing plans and interventions to address those needs. Assurance involves ensuring that the policies are effective and that the population has access to quality health services and resources. 2. What are some of the social determinants of health and how do they affect population health outcomes? (3 points) Answer: Social determinants of health are the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work, and age that influence their health and well-being. Some examples are income, education, employment, housing, environment, culture, and social support. These factors can affect population health outcomes by creating disparities and inequities among different groups of people in terms of their exposure to risk factors, access to health care, and quality of life. 3. What is the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention and give an example of each in the context of population health? (3 points) Answer: Primary prevention aims to prevent disease or injury before it occurs by reducing or eliminating risk factors. An example is immunization against infectious diseases. Secondary prevention aims to detect and treat disease or injury early before it causes serious complications or disability. An example is screening for cancer or diabetes. Tertiary prevention aims to reduce the impact and consequences of disease or injury by providing rehabilitation and palliative care. An example is physical therapy for stroke survivors or hospice care for terminally ill patients. 4. What are some of the challenges and opportunities for population health in the era of globalization and climate change? (4 points) Answer: Some of the challenges for population health in the era of globalization and climate change are the increased spread of infectious diseases, the emergence of new and re-emerging pathogens, the increased exposure to environmental hazards, the increased migration and displacement of populations, the increased conflict and violence, and the increased social and economic inequalities. Some of the opportunities for population health in the era of globalization and climate change are the increased collaboration and cooperation among countries and organizations, the increased innovation and technology for health promotion and disease prevention, the increased awareness and advocacy for health equity and human rights, and the increased participation and empowerment of communities and individuals. 5. What are some of the ethical principles and values that guide population health practice? (4 points) Answer: Some of the ethical principles and values that guide population health practice are respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, solidarity, accountability, transparency, and participation. Respect for autonomy means respecting the rights and preferences of individuals and communities to make informed decisions about their own health. Beneficence means doing good or promoting well-being for others. Non-maleficence means avoiding harm or minimizing harm for others. Justice means ensuring fairness and equity in the distribution of benefits and burdens among different groups of people. Solidarity means expressing mutual support and cooperation among people who share common interests or goals. Accountability means being responsible for one's actions and outcomes. Transparency means being open and honest about one's intentions, methods, and results. Participation means involving stakeholders in the planning, implementation, evaluation, and improvement of population health activities. 6. What are some of the strategies and tools that can be used to measure and evaluate population health outcomes? (3 points) Answer: Some of the strategies and tools that can be used to measure and evaluate population health outcomes are indicators, indices, surveys, registries, surveillance systems, dashboards, scorecards, reports, audits, reviews, evaluations, research studies, etc. Indicators are quantitative or qualitative measures that reflect a specific aspect or dimension of population health. Indices are composite measures that combine multiple indicators into a single score or rank. Surveys are systematic collections of data from a sample or a population using questionnaires or interviews. Registries are databases that collect information on specific diseases or conditions from various sources. Surveillance systems are ongoing collections and analyses of data on specific health events or behaviors from various sources. Dashboards are visual displays that show key indicators or metrics at a glance. Scorecards are tools that compare performance against targets or benchmarks using indicators or metrics. Reports are documents that summarize data or information on a specific topic or issue. Audits are systematic examinations of records or processes to assess compliance or quality. Reviews are critical appraisals of evidence or literature on a specific topic or issue. Evaluations are systematic assessments of the value or impact of an intervention or program on a specific outcome or goal. Research studies are systematic investigations that generate new knowledge or test hypotheses on a specific topic or issue. . What are some of the challenges and opportunities for improving population health in the 21st century? (10 marks) - Some of the challenges for improving population health in the 21st century are: - The increasing burden of chronic diseases and aging populations - The emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance - The impacts of climate change and environmental degradation on health - The social and economic inequalities and inequities that affect health outcomes - The complexity and fragmentation of health systems and policies - Some of the opportunities for improving population health in the 21st century are: - The advancement of technology and innovation in health care delivery and research - The availability of big data and analytics for measuring and monitoring population health - The engagement and empowerment of individuals and communities in their own health - The collaboration and partnership among different sectors and stakeholders in addressing the determinants of health - The adoption of a holistic and systems approach to population health